Psychological distress and homeless duration*

We examine whether psychological distress levels vary with homeless and housed duration. We do this using longitudinal data from a national survey of persons facing housing insecurity that, unlike prior studies, is not restricted to those who are currently homeless (or to particular subsets of the homeless), but instead follows a nationally representative sample of Australians experiencing housing insecurity. This allows us to use methods that isolate the effects of changes in time spent homeless and time spent housed on psychological distress holding constant all unobserved person-specific effects that are time invariant. We find that the relationship between psychological distress and homelessness varies by gender and by type of homelessness. Males recently experiencing literal homelessness (i.e. sleeping rough or in crisis accommodation) exhibit the highest levels of distress, but consistent with the adaptation hypothesis, distress levels decline as homeless duration increases. This pattern is not seen when examining a broader notion of homelessness for males. Likewise, there is no clear pattern with regard to homeless duration for females.     

Between Rural and Urban Slums: A Geography of Pathways Through Homelessness

In this paper we deal with the geography of pathways through homelessness, developed by households who live in holiday parks in the rural southern part of Belgium (Wallonia). The paper aims to provide insights into the motivations and objectives of the homeless themselves and to identify structural obstacles that risk reproducing homelessness. After a conceptual introduction, we present our research methodology, which combines quantitative and qualitative methods. The following section then briefly describes the socio-historical background of three permanently inhabited holiday parks, which serve as case studies for this paper. The empirical results focus on the geography of pathways, stressing housing situations before and beyond permanent habitation of holiday parks. We conclude by arguing that a collective and holistic policy is needed to fight homelessness.     

Housing Pathways of Disabled Young People: Evidence for Policy and Practice

Most studies of disabled young people's housing experiences focus on structural constraints, with little attention given to the role of young people themselves in shaping their housing biographies. Using Clapham's (2002) housing pathways framework, this paper reflects on new empirical data to examine interactions between structure, agency and wider discourses in the housing pathways of disabled young people. The paper develops a typology of disabled young people's housing pathways, consisting of direct, staged and return pathways to independent living. Within each of these pathways, young people face key challenges of deciding to leave, finding suitable accommodation and maintaining their accommodation. The research identifies some of the complex interconnected factors that shape the ways young people negotiate these challenges and in doing so key messages emerge for policy makers and practitioners. Moreover, the paper not only informs policy and practice but also responds to questions that have recently been asked of the pathways framework and social constructionism more generally.     

Young People Exiting Homelessness: An Exploration of Process,Meaning and Definition

In the past decade in particular, research attention has shifted from an almost exclusive focus on routes or pathways into homelessness towards the investigation of exits from homelessness. As well as demonstrating the multiple paths possible for young people who become homeless, recent research, and longitudinal studies in particular, has contributed to a more nuanced understanding of the complexity of the homeless pathways of young people. Nonetheless, knowledge and understanding of the nature of homeless exits, and of the mechanisms that facilitate the transition out of homelessness, is far from complete. This paper explores the processes surrounding the exit routes taken by young people out of homelessness and the meanings attached by them to these housing transitions based on selected findings from an ongoing qualitative longitudinal study of homeless youth in Dublin, Ireland. More broadly, the paper considers the utility of distinguishing between the types of routes that young people take out of homelessness, with particular attention to the notions of ‘independent’ and ‘dependent’ exits. The paper aims to further the discussion and debate on the conceptualisation of homeless exits and also discusses a number of policy implications arising from the study's findings.     

Homeless young people ‘strategizing’ a route to housing stability: service fatigue,exiting attempts and living ‘off grid’

Abstract

While access to housing has been identified as a crucial enabler to young people exiting homelessness, relatively little is known about the experiences of youth who encounter barriers in their attempts to secure housing. Mobilizing a pathways approach, this paper examines homeless young people’s experiences of seeking housing in a context of housing market forces that blocked their efforts to carve a route out of homelessness. The research, which is biographical and longitudinal, was conducted in Ireland between 2013 and 2016 and involved the collection of data at two points in time. At baseline, 40 young people aged 16–24 years and 10 of their family members were recruited (Phase 1) and, at the point of follow-up two years later (Phase 2), 74% of participants were retained in the study. By Phase 2, just 24% of the study’s young people were housed, pointing to significant barriers of access to housing. Moving beyond the identification of the impact of housing market forces on young people’s ability to exit homelessness, the analysis examines young people’s responses, focussing on the strategies used by them as they attempted to reclaim autonomy and control over their housing futures. Implications for the development of sustainable housing solutions that specifically cater to the needs of homeless youth are discussed.     

The experience of homeless women: An exploration of housing histories and the meaning of home

The exploratory study with homeless women presented in this paper aims to highlight two shortcomings in the current literature on homelessness, which accompany the predominant conceptualisation of ‘home’ as a place of safety and security, and homelessness as a primarily structural issue characterised by ‘residential instability’. The first is the paucity of research on homeless women in their own right and the second the lack of studies which examine underlying reasons for residential instability from homeless women's own perspectives. An intensive, small sample interview study was carried out with 12 regular women users of a day centre for homeless people (Brighton, south of England). They were asked about their patterns of residence, reasons for moving, definitions of ‘house’, ‘home’, and ‘ideal home’, and they gave their housing histories in some detail. In a quantitative analysis, their patterns of moving and definitions of ‘home’ were compared to those of a group of securely housed women. Number of moves was comparable in both groups, but for the homeless women the majority of moves had been made to avoid abuse and social services relocations. Whilst all of the securely housed women could confidently define a difference in meaning between a ‘house’ and a ‘home’, only 3 of the 12 homeless women did. They equated ‘home’ with safety and security, the same terms used in the literature to define what housing means, and the two most salient features largely absent in homeless women's experience of housing. The meaning of home is further explored in a qualitative analysis, where the themes of safety and security—or rather their absence in abusive relationships—are traced through the homeless women's childhood, adolescence and adulthood. These exploratory findings question an easy equation between ‘residential instability’ and homelessness, and highlight the need to investigate further the reasons why women leave housing, and the relationship this has to an understanding of what ‘home’ means. Whilst current formulations suggest that the homelessness of women is a problem, and housing the solution, this study suggests that housing is the problem—homelessness may well be a solution.     

Housing Homeless People: Local Mobilization of Federal Resources to Fight NIMBYism

Local sentiments are rarely favorable to human service facilities. City governments and neighborhood organizations frequently utilize zoning restrictions to exclude various community facilities, including services and housing for homeless people. This exclusionary phenomenon is commonly referred to as “not‐in‐my‐backyard” or “NIMBYism.” The power of NIMBYism is grounded in the local autonomy afforded municipalities concerning land use policies. However, recent cases suggest that the tradition of local authority over certain types of land uses is being reexamined and, even more frequently, challenged at the extra‐local level. Given this trend, the purpose of this article is to question the assumption that local government will be able to preserve their authority over housing for homeless people. Using a case study of a local zoning battle over a proposed housing development for homeless people, the author argues that recent changes in the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development’s governance over Fair Housing Law enforcement and administration of Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance funding, coupled with the agency’s more aggressive position on housing discrimination, may already have changed the balance of power on this issue. By examining the process by which a non‐profit organization in Albany, New York, was able to reach a settlement with the city concerning a zoning denial by mobilizing federal resources, the author attempts to highlight a possible emerging federal role in facilitating local mobilization against NIMBYism as it applies to housing for homeless individuals.     

Patterns of exits from housing in a homelessness system of care: the case of Calgary,Alberta

Public officials around the world seek to target subsidized housing as purposely and efficiently as possible. With limited availability of subsidized housing, it is helpful to know which household types require specific types of housing support and for how long. With this in mind, we undertake survival analysis and hazard models on clients placed into housing funded by the Calgary Homeless Foundation (CHF) to characterize patterns of exit from Calgary’s homeless system of care. To do this, we use data from Calgary’s Homelessness Management Information System from 1 April 2012 until 31 March 2015. We find singles without dependents to require housing support for the longest period of time, while families require the support for the least amount of time. One important finding is that women require housing support for longer periods of time than men (even though we control for employment and income).     

Finding home after homelessness: older men’s experiences in single-site permanent supportive housing

Abstract

Although research on supportive housing models for older homeless adults is gaining momentum, few studies have considered the unique experiences of formerly homeless older adults residing in single-site permanent supportive housing (PSH). Drawing on the concepts of home and social exclusion, this qualitative case study explored the everyday experiences of 10 formerly homeless older men residing in single-site PSH. A constructivist grounded theory methodology and in-depth interviews revealed that participants felt largely at home in PSH because the congregate design and surveillance fostered a sense of safety. However, certain design features coupled with housing rules triggered processes of territorial exclusion. Further, members of minority groups experienced identity and institutional exclusion because of discrimination linked to their ethnicity, language, and sexual orientation. Recommendations are provided to promote more inclusive, home-like models of supportive housing for older homeless adults.     

Activity spaces of homeless men and women measured by GPS tracking data: A comparative analysis of Prague and Pilsen

The aim of this article is to investigate the factors that influence the size of activity spaces of homeless men and women in cities. Vulnerable population groups such as the homeless face the risk of mobility challenges that can exacerbate their social exclusion even more through mobility-driven spatial exclusion. The extent of an individual's activity space is a key precondition for the daily coping strategies and life opportunities of homeless people. This study is the first to combine GPS tracking of homeless people based on a week-long GPS measurement with mobility interviews. The article tests five hypotheses as to the influence of city size, age, gender, housing situation and education on the size of activity space. Data obtained for a large city (Prague) and for a small city (Pilsen) are analysed using three geospatial measurements of activity spaces. In line with mixed-method approaches, the results are further triangulated through mobility interviews. By mapping the objective activity spaces, we were able to evaluate the role of individual and contextual factors in shaping homeless life and discuss the theoretical and practical implications of activity space measurement for social policy and urban planning.     

Social housing—past,present and future

Over the past decade in Western Europe there has been a growth of unmet low‐income housing needs. There are now as many as 3–5 million homeless people in the EC countries and many more who are paying more than they can afford for poor quality accommodation (Quilliot, 1992, p. 12). In the 1970s it seemed as if the acute post‐war shortages of low‐income housing had finally been overcome and mass programmes of social rented housing had played a key role in bringing this about. In addition, rising prosperity had opened up private market housing opportunities for broad sections of the population. However, the profound economic, social and political changes since the mid‐1970s have destroyed this optimistic scenario. Now we face, on the one hand, the re‐emergence of a large scale problem of housing availability and affordability and, on the other hand, the reluctance or inability of most governments and societies to respond to this problem. In particular, no government now seems likely to support large scale programmes of social rented housing construction to help meet the rising tide of low‐income housing needs. Indeed, large parts of the existing stock of social rented housing are beset with social, economic and physical problems. Also, in some countries, Great Britain and Germany for example, the size of this sector is rapidly diminishing as privatisation takes place. The purpose of this policy review is first to place the current circumstances of social rented housing in a longer‐term historical perspective, and second to compare the current situation of social rented housing in several Western European countries. Finally, the review will reflect on the prospects for social rented housing.     

Breaking the cycle of homelessness: Housing stability and social support as predictors of long-term well-being

It is increasingly acknowledged that homelessness involves more than just being without a house. Indeed, more recent definitions of what constitutes a home highlight the role of social connections and support (including, for example, access to space to engage in social relations). This study examined the role of secure housing and social support as predictors of psychological well-being of individuals following a period of homelessness. Using linear mixed models for longitudinal data, we investigated how changes in social support predicted changes in individuals’ self-reported personal well-being, life satisfaction and mood following a period of homelessness (n = 119), controlling for housing status, alcohol use and employment status. The results showed that remaining homeless predicted poorer personal well-being, life satisfaction and mood. In addition, changes in social support predicted well-being over and above housing stability. Implications of findings for policy and practice in the homeless sector are discussed.     

The Relationship between Government Assistance and Housing Outcomes among Extremely Low-income Individuals: A Qualitative Inquiry in Los Angeles

This paper illustrates the relationship between government assistance (housing subsidies and/or welfare payments) and housing outcomes, using qualitative methods and a sample of 25 extremely low-income, homeless women at an emergency shelter in Central Los Angeles. The paper seeks to illustrate three specific patterns (identified within the larger literature) to this complex and multifaceted relationship: (1) that the presence of housing subsidies promotes the most positive outcomes overall, such as stability and independence; (2) that, in the absence of housing subsidies, the predictability and amount of welfare become critical in promoting positive housing outcomes; and (3) housing outcomes are least positive for those lacking both housing subsidies and welfare payments. Results largely conformed to these expectations, although less so for the last pattern.     

From deficient planning to “incapable tenants”. Changing discourses on housing problems in Sweden

Since the mid 1970s, discourses on housing problems and problem tenants in Sweden have changed significantly. This article, which is based on official reports and an urban case study, accounts for this transformation at the national, the urban, as well as the work‐practice level of discourse from a constructivist perspective.

The government's understanding of high vacancy rates were, in the 1970s, associated with deficient planning and building. However, in the 1980s, focus was diverted to a crisis in the public housing sector, which in turn highlighted the “noisy neighbour” as the source of their negative image. At the urban level the shifting discourse is signified by the municipal housing companies’ more selective policy in the 1980s, and the local social authorities’ growing role in housing for homeless clients. Contradictory demands from the role as landlords and as social workers, at the level of work‐practice, resulted in a redefinition and revaluation of homeless clients. In the beginning of the 1990s, these new practices at urban and street‐levels were sanctioned at the national level, thereby completing the shift from structural to individual accounts for housing problems.     

Job mobility, residential mobility and commuting: A theoretical analysis using search theory

The decision to move job and the decision to move residence are closely related dynamic discrete choices, as both moves involve a change of commuting distance. This suggests that labour and residential mobility are mutually dependent and should be simultaneously analysed, based on a theory which incorporates these dynamic decisions explicitly. In the present paper, we base our analysis on search theory and choose the point of departure that individuals maximise utility by moving through different labour market and housing market states, while taking into consideration that moving from one state to another is costly. Based on these assumptions, a search model is constructed and the optimality conditions are derived.  One of main conclusions based on the search model is that the effect of factors which cause housing market imperfections (viz. the residential moving costs and the residence arrival rate) have ambiguous effects on he job acceptance and job search behaviour of employed individuals. For some interesting cases however, the effect of the residential moving costs on the job acceptance behaviour can be derived. In contrast, the effect of housing market imperfections on the labour market behaviour of nonemployed persons is determined. We find for example that housing policies which discourage nonemployed persons to move residence (e.g. housing subsidies) also decrease the probability of becoming employed and may therefore unintentionally increase the number of nonemployed persons. Received: December 1997/Accepted: March 1999     

Emergency homeless shelter use in the Dublin region 2012–2016: Utilizing a cluster analysis of administrative data

Arising out of a decade of economic recession and austerity, Ireland is currently in the grip of a severe housing crisis marked by weak housing supply, rapidly rising house prices and rents and a dramatic increase in homelessness that is placing severe pressure on the State's emergency accommodation system. This article utilises data from a national homelessness services database (PASS system), which captures live information on service user interactions for all state funded NGO and local authority homeless services, to examine the patterns of emergency accommodation use by the homeless population in Dublin City. The paper applies a k-means cluster analysis to determine different subgroups of Dublin's homeless population (n = 12,734) and analyses their rate of movement through homeless services between the years 2012 and 2016. A temporary cluster (78%) experienced a small number of homeless episodes for relatively short periods of time, while an episodic cluster (10%) experienced multiple homeless episodes also for a short period of time. The chronic cluster (12%) experienced a small number of homeless episodes but with long stays in emergency shelter. Results for Ireland show patterns similar to those reported in the US, Canada and Denmark, where a small number of chronic users of homeless accommodation account for a disproportionately large share of resources (i.e. 50% of total bed nights). The findings have implications for the operation of emergency homeless accommodation in Ireland and, in particular, the targeting of interventions and the re-directing of resources away from emergency accommodation responses towards a more effective emergency accommodation system for all stakeholders.     

Home is Where the House is: The Meaning of Home for People Sleeping Rough

Contributors to the housing field broadly agree that home is a multi-dimensional concept. Indeed, informed by the proposition that home and housing should not be conflated, the social, psychological and emotional elements of home have been well documented. Home is thought to be subjectively experienced. As such, some have shown that people defined as homeless may not actually feel homeless, but rather experience their accommodation or situation as home. This paper is based on ethnographic research with a group of people sleeping rough in Brisbane, Australia. It argues that their problematic experiences residing in public places, together with their biographies of feeling disconnected from society, underpinned their ideas of home. For people in this study, housing and home were synonymous. The physical structure of a house was important to assume control over their day-to-day lives. Home, however, stood for something beyond housing. Home was constructed as a signifier of normality, and as a commitment to participation in Australian society.     

From long-term homelessness to stable housing: investigating ‘liminality’

Abstract

This paper uses the term ‘liminality’ to refer to the experience of feeling like an outsider when people are transitioning from one housing status (long-term homelessness) to another (housed). Three dimensions of liminality are identified: ‘material’, ‘relational’ and ‘psychological’. The material dimension covers how people feel about their housing and whether they find it difficult to make the transition from homeless to housed. The relational dimension focuses on whether people are able to rebuild relations with family and friends. The psychological dimension includes how people deal with the stigma of homelessness. The paper demonstrates that most people can overcome the material dimension of liminality if they are given appropriate support, but they find it more difficult to overcome the relational and psychological dimensions of liminality. We conclude that moving on from long-term homelessness is not straightforward and we point to the policy implications of these findings.     

How do housing and labour markets affect individual homelessness?

Abstract

We examine the impact of housing and labour market conditions on individual risks of homelessness. Our innovation is a focus on homelessness entries, although findings from jointly estimated homelessness entry and exit probit equations are reported. Risky behaviours and life experiences such as regular use of drugs, the experience of violence and biographies of acute disadvantage lead to a higher risk of becoming homeless. Public housing is a strong protective factor. We find clear evidence that for certain subgroups it is being the ‘wrong person in the wrong place’ that matters most when considering risks of entering homelessness. Indigenous Australians, for example, are no more likely to become homeless than other vulnerable groups holding housing and labour market conditions constant. However, tighter housing markets and weaker labour markets expose Indigenous Australians to significantly higher risks of entering homelessness.