Recovery of breakdown strength of a vacuum interrupter after extinction of high currents

Relevant phenomena during the period of the recovery of the dielectric strength of vacuum interrupter (VI) are reviewed. Metal vapor, residual charge and the effects of molten contact surfaces reduce the breakdown strength after the interruption of high currents. Metal droplets seem to play only a secondary role during the recovery phase. Instability of liquid protrusions is suspected to initiate breakdown if the electric field strength exceeds 10 kV/mm at the molten contact surfaces (undisturbed field). Key parameters are surface temperature and vapor density. Breakdown during recovery of the dielectric strength depends not only on the value of the voltage applied but also on the duration of the high voltage stress. A spontaneous triggering event in the presence of metal vapor appears to initiate breakdown at conditions below the Paschen breakdown limit. This type of breakdown events limits the interruption performance of VI's.     

Electrode roughness effects on the breakdown of air-insulatedapparatus

The dielectric breakdown of air insulating systems is believed to be sensitive to local irregularity of the electric field which may result from the presence of defects such as contaminants adhering to electrode surfaces and surface roughness. Normally metal machining methods are used to eliminate such electrode surfaces irregularities. However, system aging and harsh operating conditions create and sustain such rough surface conditions which may, in turn, lead to the failure of insulation under the resulting enhanced electric stresses. Electrode surface roughness causes a large reduction in the breakdown strengths of gas insulated apparatus. Surface roughness leads to the existence of localized microscopic regions with local field intensities larger than the average field in the gas near the electrodes. This paper models the insulation breakdown mechanism in the presence of such surface roughness, or protrusions, taking into account their random nature which lends the problem to probabilistic treatment. In order to generalize the surface roughness effect on the dielectric withstand of air-insulated systems, surface roughness is simulated by using a random event generator. The perturbations which these protrusions inflict on the field distribution in a nearly-uniform field gap are assessed. The corresponding breakdown voltages are estimated for different patterns of surface roughness. The results are statistically formulated     

The influence of defects on the short-term breakdowncharacteristics and long-term dc performance of LDPE insulation

Extruded polyethylene is used as the bulk insulation for ac HV cables because of its high electric resistivity and breakdown strength. Although the material at present has limited use in dc power cables, it is used extensively in submarine optical communication cable systems. This paper reports on the study of the short-term characteristics and long-term performance of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) insulation under dc electric stress. The results are presented in which controlled defects as found in practical systems (voids, metallic and non-metallic particles) were introduced into well-characterized polymer material so that their influence on electrical strength and breakdown mechanisms could be determined. Samples were compression-molded under laboratory conditions and subjected to ramp-to-failure and electrical aging tests at various stresses. Weibull statistics are used to analyze the results. Examination of electrically aged samples indicates an oxidation degradation around the defects due to stress enhancement. From the failed samples a value of n in the inverse power model was estimated. The residual life of aged samples was also examined     

Flashover voltage of alumina ceramic contaminated by metal vapor in vacuum interrupters

We investigated the influence of metal vapor contamination of ceramic surfaces on flashover voltage (FOV) in vacuum. First, disk shape alumina (Al/sub 2/O/sub 3/) ceramics with surface resistivity (/spl rho/) of 10/sup 2/-10/sup 15/ /spl Omega/ were produced using deposition phenomena of metal vapor emitted from CuCr contacts. The impulse FOV for the ceramics decreased, as /spl rho/ reduced; FOV, the conditioning effect on FOV, and the scattering of FOV decreased when /spl rho/ was below 10/sup 12/ /spl Omega/. Therefore, the criterion value /spl rho/, which maintains excellent flashover performances of ceramic surface, is 10/sup 12/ /spl Omega/. Second, experimental vacuum interrupters (VIs) were produced to measure breakdown voltage before and after forty short-circuit current switchings with 20-40 kA/sub rms/ and were disassembled to measure the /spl rho/ of their inner ceramic surface. In a VI, which has inside diameters at both ends of the main shield much larger than the contact diameter, /spl rho/ was reduced to 10/sup 4/ /spl Omega/, further decreasing breakdown voltage between terminals.     

Surface flashover characteristics of diamond-like carbon thin filmsin vacuum

Synthetic thin films such as diamond-like carbon (DLC) and polycrystalline diamond thin films can be used to increase surface flashover voltage of dielectric materials used in HV devices operating in vacuum. This work presents experimental results identifying some surface flashover characteristics of diamond-like carbon (DLC) thin films in space vacuum conditions. The DLC samples used in the experiments are produced by a microwave plasma deposition technique. The electrode material was copper, and a dc voltage was applied between the electrodes. Surface flashover voltage characteristics and the breakdown voltage wave forms of DLC thin film samples were determined. The results showed that DLC thin films may not be suitable materials for HV applications as dielectric materials in vacuum when coated onto semiconductor materials. Additionally, these results were compared with the surface flashover characteristics of polycrystalline diamond thin film and quartz samples     

Characteristics of preflashover light emission from dielectricsurfaces in vacuum

Luminescence from dielectric surfaces during preflashover in vacuum was observed under pulse excitation. By preflashover luminescence, we mean light emission under no flashover conditions. Study of light emission with respect to electrode configurations and spacing between the two electrodes shows that preflashover light emission is related to electron emission from the cathode and trapping/detrapping processes on the dielectric surface layer. Spectroscopic observations of the light emission indicate that the preflashover spectrum changes from one voltage shot to another voltage shot of the same amplitude and that the spectral distribution of the light emission depends on the dielectric material used. We believe that the light emission from preflashover is electroluminescence which may be attributed to de-excitation of excited species in the surface layers of the dielectric material     

Influence of post-manufacturing residual mechanical stress andcrosslinking by-products on dielectric strength of HV extruded cables

Residual mechanical stresses from manufacturing always exist in freshly extruded HV cables. These stresses are not uniformly distributed in the cable insulation bulk material. Five different HV cables were analyzed with respect to residual mechanical stresses and dielectric breakdown strength. Photoelastic measurements have been carried out and show that maximum residual stresses range from 4.5 to 6 MPa and are located near the conductor shield. Breakdown strength measurements with respect to mechanical stresses have also been performed up to, and above the maximum stresses observed. A significant decrease in ac breakdown strength was observed for stresses higher than 6 MPa. Typical crosslinking by-products from dicumyl peroxide (DCP) have been measured by FTIR spectroscopy at five radial positions in the insulation bulk. Measured by-products consisted in acetophenone and cumyl alcohol. FTIR measurements show that crosslinking by-products content is higher in the bulk of the insulation than near the conductor and insulation shields thus showing a diffusion process. Moreover, residual amount of cumyl alcohol is generally between 1 and 3 times that of acetophenone. No important effect of both by-products on the ac dielectric breakdown strength was observed     

冲击电压下沿面闪络与空气湿度的关系

研究了冲击电压下的绝缘表面空气闪络电压与湿度的关系。研究结果表明,对于支柱绝缘子,其冲击闪络电压与湿度之间的关系基本符合现行ＩＥＣ标准。但对于套管,其冲击闪络电压电压与湿度之间的着重关系与现行ＩＥＣ标准完全相反,大致成“镜像”关系。发现对于套管型沿面放电,其正极性流注的电位梯度随湿度增加而下降,这正好与现行湿度对放电影响的理论所预测的规律相反。     

直流高压干式套管的多参量诊断

准确诊断干式套管主绝缘的老化状态,对于电力系统的可靠运行及状态检修具有非常重要的意义。为此,分别测量了干式套管主绝缘试样的介质损耗参量、泄漏电流、局部放电参量和剩余击穿电压,采用基于统计学的方法建立了多参量诊断的数学模型,对干式套管主绝缘进行了老化状态评估。结果表明:所测参量中,偏斜度Sk+、介电损耗tanδ、局放起始电压UPDIV、吸收比Pi为最优参量组;多参量诊断会提高绝缘状态评价的准确性,但也并不是参量越多越好,合理的选取诊断参量十分重要。     

Relation between breakdown voltage and prebreakdown current in vacuum gap

Two different surface treatments (mechanical polishing, thin film deposition) were performed on cathode surfaces, and the field emission currents from the cathodes were measured with a microchannel plate. In order to discuss the relationship between the breakdown voltage and prebreakdown current in the vacuum gap, the breakdown voltage was measured after field emission measurement. The V–I characteristics of the field emission and breakdown voltage were influenced by surface treatment, and the breakdown voltages of mechanical polished cathodes were lower than those of the thin film deposited cathodes. It was found that the probability of breakdown increased when the field emission current reached 10^–11 A. Atomic force microscope (AFM) measurements showed numerous protrusions on the cathode surface in the case of thin film deposition treatment, but we estimated by the finite element method that these protrusions make the field enhancement effect low. It was inferred that the breakdown voltage in vacuum gaps could be increased by the thin film deposition method. © 2000 Scripta Technica, Electr Eng Jpn, 131(4): 11–18, 2000     

Surfaces structure of bulk and thin film ferroelectrics

Abstract

Based on the experimental results of thickness dependences of breakdown voltage and dielectric permittivity for BaTiO₃ family ceramics, (Pb, La)TiO₃ thin films and commercial multilayer capacitors, surface layer structures are discussed. Surface layers inside ferroelectric materials are consisting of non-ferroelectric Kanzig layer with low dielectric permittivity and with higher concentrations of impurities due to the inter diffusion between substrates and bulk, internal stresses induced by lattice mismatch, cubic-tetragonal phase transition, electric field induced anisotropies and internal bias field (space charge field). The Voltage - Current characteristics (V-I curve), D-E loops of ferroelectric materials show asymmetric behaviors. Saturation phenomena of V-I curves are observed only ferroelectric temperature region. The breakdown voltage almost depends on the non-ferroelectric Kanzig layer and the dielectric permittivity depends on the volume fraction of non-ferroelectric parts. Log-log plots of dielectric permittivity and breakdown voltage suggest that the thickness of non-ferroelectric Känzig layer should be at least more than 10～20 nm and in the grain boundary thickness of bulk ferroelectric materials should be more, especially in the liquid phase sintering, the thickness of grain boundary is a order of 0.1～0.2 μm.     

Dielectric spectroscopy for diagnosis of water tree deteriorationin XLPE cables

An HV dielectric spectroscopy system has been developed for diagnostics of water tree deteriorated extruded medium voltage cables. The technique is based on the measurement of nonlinear dielectric response in the frequency domain. Today's commercially available systems are capable of resolving low loss and small variations of permittivity as a function of frequency and voltage. Experience from more than 200 field measurements was combined with laboratory investigations. Small samples were used in an accelerated aging test to elucidate the correlation between water tree growth and dielectric response. Furthermore, field aged cables were investigated in the laboratory. It has been shown that the dielectric response of water tree deteriorated crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) cables can be recognized and classified into different types of responses related to the aging status and breakdown strength. The influence of termination and artifacts such as surface currents was investigated. The measurement method enables us to separate the response of the cable from the influence of accessories. Finally, two different field studies of the implementation of the diagnostic method are presented. The field studies show that the fault rate decreased significantly when replacement strategy was based on the diagnostic criteria formulated     

Process of sludge spraying on the constructional elements of the on-load regulator of a power transformer due to electroconvection

The process of sludge spraying on the constructional elements of an RNOA-like contactor of an on-load regulator is investigated. Calculation of the electric field in the contactor cavity filled with the dielectric liquid is performed. Areas of the largest voltage values of the electric field are determined. In these areas, the sludge particles are condensed due to electroconvection. It is shown that sludge spraying on the surfaces of various elements of the contactor leads to an increase of the electric field near these surfaces and increases the possibility of a breakdown in the isolation.     

The performance of power cables with fully synthetic tapedinsulation

The testing of oriented polyethylene tape with an embossed surface design for use as oil-impregnated insulation for flexible power cables is described. The development was carried out with small samples in the form of sheets, small cylindrical samples about 1 m long, and long cables either 15 m or 100 m long. Tests with these experimental configurations included investigating: (1) breakdown stress and statistics of breakdown; (2) dielectric loss measurements; (3) design of screens; (4) design of splices; (5) mechanical problems of taping and installing cables; and (6) oil impregnation and type of oil. The results point the way to the next development steps. These are: (1) development of thinner embossed tapes to exploit the potential of the high dielectric strength inherent in synthetic taped insulation; (2) development of accessories such as splices and terminations; and (3) complete system design to avoid a dramatic increase in dielectric loss caused by oil contamination. If the integrity of the insulation homogeneity can be maintained, it appears the high voltage breakdown stresses will be adequate to permit economical operation     

Dielectric-breakdown-induced epitaxy: a universal breakdown defect in ultrathin gate dielectrics

The breakdown phenomena in SiO/sub x/N/sub y/ (EOT=20 /spl Aring/) gate dielectric under a two- stage constant voltage stress in inversion mode are physically analyzed with the aid of transmission electron microscopy. The results show that dielectric-breakdown-induced epitaxy (DBIE) remains as one of the major failure defects responsible for gate dielectric breakdown evolution even for a stress voltage as low as 2.5 V. Based on the results, the same failure mechanism i.e., presence of DBIE would be responsible for the degradation in ultrathin gate dielectrics for gate voltage below 2.5 V. It is believed that DBIE will be present in MOSFETs failed at nominal operating voltage.     

直流电絮凝法处理印染废水的研究

为提高传统化学法和生物法处理色度高、颜色变化频繁、化学需氧量(COD)值大和pH值高的印染废水的效果,试验研究了用直流电絮凝法处理实际印染废水并分析了COD、pH值和COD的变化以及极板和电能的消耗。试验结果表明,电絮凝法处理效果好,对pH值要求低,工艺简单,操作方便,成本低。     

特高压换流站直流滤波电容器故障分析研究

针对常发的直流滤波器用直流电容器损坏事故,本文对特高压换流站直流滤波电容器事故的机理和原因进行深入的研究,对电容器单元进行了外观和电性能测试、绝缘油色谱试验、电容量介质损耗测量.对解剖后的电容器元件绝缘包封、电容器元件不同温度下直流电压击穿、聚丙烯薄膜不同温度下交直流电压击穿、铝箔等进行了研究试验.通过对故障和完好电容器对比试验研究,发现所测电容器的部分生产工艺和注油工艺不佳造成运行中电容器不稳定,而电阻过于集中,导致电阻器表面绝缘介质过热,容易发生击穿故障,研究结果对提高该类型电容器的运行可靠性具有重要意义.     

Space charge characterization for the 21th century

Various methods of characterizing insulating materials by their ability to take up charge, retain it, and release it, are reviewed critically in search of measurable quantities that could be used to predict material behavior under stress up to failure conditions. Space charge characterization data on different types of materials from polymers to inorganic single crystals and ceramics are surveyed. The charging behavior is found to be influenced by many details such as surface condition and residual stresses. The traditional approach of linking dielectric breakdown to an intrinsic critical field for the material is tested against the newly emerging view that breakdown could be linked to space charge trapping at defect sites and to the attendant energetics of the mechanically strained lattice. The characterization process thus requires more care than was previously thought necessary, but after more research should become more predictive     

Application of the AC Superposition Method to Degradation Diagnosis of 22/33‐kV Class XLPE Cables

Water trees in the insulator of XLPE cable may considerably reduce the dielectric breakdown voltage, thus being an important lifetime‐governing factor. The ac superposition method we have investigated is a new technique for hot‐line diagnosis of 6.6‐kV XLPE cables, and the diagnostic apparatus using this technique is now widely used in the distribution line field. In order to study the application of the ac superposition method to degradation diagnosis of 22/33‐kV class XLPE cables, we measured deterioration signals of the cables with water trees by a modification of the above diagnostic apparatus. The deterioration signals, hereafter called “ac superposition current”, were generated by an amplitude modulation effect due to the nonlinear resistance of water trees. Moreover, we evaluated the relationship between the ac superposition current and the ac breakdown voltage. It is difficult to judge whether a correlation between then is present or not because of the uneven distribution of the measured data. However, the ac superposition current tends to increase linearly with a decrease in the residual thickness of the insulator. For example, the ac superposition current was about 40 nA when the residual thickness decreased to 3 mm. Thus, we consider that the ac superposition method is effective for degradation diagnosis of 22/33‐kV class XLPE cables.     

Effect of electrode surface roughness on electrical breakdown in high voltage apparatus

This paper considers the statistical theory of electrical breakdowns in high voltage (HV) devices. The extended probability distribution of breakdown is deduced for nonuniform gaps. The breakdown of high voltage apparatus is sensitive to local irregularity of the electric field which may result from the presence of defects such as surface roughness. The surface roughness leads to existence of localized microscopic projection with local electric field strength at the projection top larger than the average field at the electrode surface. The link between parameters determining the probability of electrical breakdown and the parameters determining microscopic geometry of electrode surface is obtained. In this paper a simplified breakdown model is used as a basis for statistical treatment. According to the model the breakdown proceeds if the electric field strength at the projection top exceeds the critical value. The method of dielectric strength calculation for HV devices using a simplified model of breakdown is presented. The paper gives an example of calculation of the breakdown voltage for vacuum switch TVS-43. Results of calculations are compared with available experimental data and Weibull distribution