'I totally agree with you': gender interactions in educational online discussion groups

Abstract This paper discusses findings from an extensive project examining gender, language and computer-mediated communication (CMC) in the context of undergraduate psychology courses. The contributions of 197 introductory psychology students (148 females, 49 males) participating in asynchronous CMC as part of their course were collated and coded for their language content using a qualitative content analysis procedure in Atlas.ti 4.2. Nearly 700 postings were characterised according to gender on the basis of seven categories relating to language and communication style – attenuated, authoritative, traditional male and female language features, mixed language, positive socioemotional and negative socioemotional. Gender interactions were analysed in terms of positive and negative socioemotional content, focusing on explicit markers of agreement and disagreement. Gender-related patterns in language use and interaction style were found. Females were more likely than males to make attenuated contributions and express agreement, whereas males were more likely than females to make authoritative contributions and express disagreement. These results are discussed in terms of the implications for the increasing use of CMC in education.     

Instant messaging with WebWho

We present a study of how awareness of presence affects content of instant messaging sent between students using WebWh o, an easily accessible web-based awareness tool. WebWho visualizes where people are located in a large university computer lab and allows students to virtually locate one another and communicate via an instant messaging system. As WebWho is there to be accessed through any web browser, it requires no programming skills or special software. It may also be used from outside the computer lab by students located elsewhere. The sender's user name is normally automatically added to the instant messages, but the messages can also be sent anonymously. We were interested in finding out if the sender's conscious hiding of his or her identity seemed to be reflected in the content of anonymous messages, and how these differed from those with identified senders. Awareness of presence seems to be one of several factors influencing message composition, both content and structural aspects. At this stage, we have primarily focused on examining how different factors affects the content of the messages. We cross-analysed the messages for content in relation to parameters such as sender location (collocated, distributed and distant) and sender status (anonymous vs. identified), in order to find out whether awareness of presence seems to be an influencing factor. Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is often claimed to be a sort of hybrid between spoken and written interaction [c.f. Ferrara, Brunner & Whittemore (1991) and and several others]. We compared the messages that were sent using the instant messaging tool in WebWho with data from other types of CMC (email, chat) and also with corpora of spoken language and traditionally written language. The aim of the study was primarily to investigate awareness of presence affects on instant messaging, and only secondarily to investigate spoken vs. written features of the texts. Results show that awareness of both physical and virtual presence affects the content of the messages, and that these factors affects the text differently. Sender status, the nature of the computer-mediated medium, and the written mode shape the messages as well. Results show that the students use the messaging system to support collaborative work and coordinate social activities, and extensively for playful behaviour.     

RU mad @ me? Social anxiety and interpretation of ambiguous text messages

Increasingly, young adults' social interactions are taking place via computer-mediated communication (CMC). Recent research suggests that socially anxious youth, in particular, may prefer interacting via CMC and show less inhibition and greater self-disclosure in such contexts. However, cognitive features of social anxiety, such as interpretation bias, have not been studied in this context. The goal of this research was to examine the phenomenon of interpretation bias (tendency to ascribe threatening interpretations to ambiguous social situations) in response to text messages. In Study 1, a new vignette measure of interpretation bias in the context of text messaging (IB-CMC) was developed and piloted with a sample of N = 215 undergraduates. This new measure displayed good psychometric properties and evidence of construct validity. For example, negative interpretation bias in CMC was associated with two established measures of interpretation bias in face-to-face situations and symptoms of social anxiety. In Study 2, the effects of sender characteristics (specifically, gender of sender) were examined in a sample of N = 353 undergraduates. Overall, participants interpreted ambiguous text messages from female senders as more negative and less benign than messages from male senders, and this effect was particularly pronounced among male participants.     

Selective self-presentation in computer-mediated communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology,language, and cognition

The hyperpersonal model of computer-mediated communication (CMC) posits that users exploit the technological aspects of CMC in order to enhance the messages they construct to manage impressions and facilitate desired relationships. This research examined how CMC users managed message composing time, editing behaviors, personal language, sentence complexity, and relational tone in their initial messages to different presumed targets, and the cognitive awareness related to these processes. Effects on several of these processes and outcomes were obtained in response to different targets, partially supporting the hyperpersonal perspective of CMC, with unanticipated gender and status interaction effects suggesting behavioral compensation through CMC, or overcompensation when addressing presumably undesirable partners.     

Gender, group composition, and task type in small task groups using computer-mediated communication

In small (4–6 member), online task groups two factors were varied: (a) group composition, in terms of the gender of the group members, and (b) assigned tasks, in terms of the content and amount of cooperation required. Gender group composition included female only (FO), male only (MO), and evenly mixed male and female (MIX) groups. The two task conditions included a ‘feminine’-content, decision-making or a ‘masculine’-content, intellective task. Groups came to consensus on the task answer using only asynchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC). It was predicted that FO and MO groups would demonstrate communication and satisfaction differences as a function of task assigned as well as group composition. Group composition was related to many group process variables in significant ways; however, in general, task differences were less strong. FO groups, regardless of task, sent more words per message, were more satisfied with the group process, and reported higher levels of group development than either MIX or MO groups. However, both task and gender composition variables were related to various measures of choice of language. Mixed results with regard to gender composition and choice of language require a further examination of gender effects on CMC as occurring in small task groups. Choice of language relation to task type were generally opposite of predictions and require clarification of task distinctions and methodologies used. The significance of the results lies in defining the styles of communicating in the CMC context that will enhance group development.     

Gender and computer-mediated communication: group processes in problem solving

The study reports results from an experiment investigating aspects of communicative processes, using face-to-face (FtF) communication and computer-mediated communication (CMC). The latter was performed in two variants: participants writing under their own names or participants writing anonymously. There were two problems to be solved, both having ambiguous solutions. The theoretical aim was to determine if gender would influence communication equality, social relations, and communicative processes. Furthermore, private and public self-awareness was studied in order to identify differences between the media and between the sexes. The results show that participants discussing FtF were more private self-aware than participants in CMC, and females were more private self-aware than males. Females produced more messages in FtF communication than they did in CMC, and there were also more opinion change from females than from males. Social judgements were more positive from females than from males. A qualitative analysis showed that females expressed more opinions and agreements in FtF communication than in CMC, but also that they agreed more than males in responding to messages from a male. There were also more disagreements in FtF communication than in CMC.     

Students’ linguistic behaviour in online discussion groups: Does gender matter?

This research examined students’ language use and interaction styles in text-based, computer-mediated discussion groups. The contributions of 197 introductory psychology students (149 females, 48 males) participating in asynchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) were collated. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used, under the methodological framework of qualitative content analysis [Mayring, P. (2000). Qualitative Content Analysis. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research [online] 1. http://qualitative-research.net/fqs-e/2-00halt-e.htm Accessed 10.06.2001]. A coding system, which incorporated the creation of ‘supercodes’, was developed using Atlas.ti 4.2 and used to code 699 student postings in total. The frequencies of coded categories were analysed using χ² statistics in SPSS 10. It was found that males and females were similar regarding use of individual linguistic variables, with the exception of intensifiers as more females used them than males. However, significant gender differences were found in use of many of the stylistic variables and the supercode analysis showed overall gender-related patterns in interaction styles. Males were more likely to use authoritative language and to respond negatively in interactions, than females. On the other hand, females were more likely to explicitly agree and support others and make more personal and emotional contributions, than males. The results suggest that gendered power differentials may carry over into online contexts, which has implications for the use of CMC in education.     

Gender,Communication, and Self‐Presentation in Teen Chatrooms Revisited: Have Patterns Changed?

This study evaluates empirically the proposition implicit in much recent gender and CMC research that expressions of gender distinctness among teens in online environments are becoming less frequent and less traditional. Gender preferences were analyzed in linguistic features and communication styles in synchronous text messages, along with self‐presentation in user profile pictures, drawing on data from popular English‐language teen chat sites collected in 2010. Significant differences were found in speech acts, message tone, and in physical stance, dress, and social distance in profile pictures that generally conform to traditional gender stereotypes. These findings are interpreted in light of previous gender and teen CMC research, adolescent development and socialization patterns, mass media representations, and trends towards media convergence in chat platforms.     

Gender and group composition in small task groups using computer-mediated communication

Group composition of small task groups was varied in terms of the gender of group members. Groups then completed a task using only asynchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC). It was presumed that groups composed of all men or all women would represent extreme positions in several gender-related variables, whereas mixed groups would fall between the extremes. Male-only groups used significantly fewer individually oriented pronouns, changed their opinions least as a result of group activity, used more coarse language toward the task, and were the least satisfied with the group process. Female-only groups were most satisfied with the group process, used the most individually oriented language, and changed their opinions most as a result of the group activity. Mixed groups sent significantly more messages than other groups, but otherwise fell between single-gender groups in terms of language use and satisfaction. The results are interpreted with reference to group and CMC factors, such as the nature of the task, stage of group development, message anonymity, and leadership. These findings are important because of the increasing use of task groups using CMC in the workforce.     

Social anxiety and computer-mediated communication during initial interactions: Implications for the hyperpersonal perspective

The study examined how the reduced nonverbal cues characteristic of computer-mediated communication (CMC) moderated the potentially negative interpersonal outcomes of social anxiety in initial interactions. Hypotheses predicted that CMC would mitigate the extent to which social anxiety caused interpersonal perceptions of anxiety and that CMC would attenuate the negative association between one’s social anxiety and one’s partner’s conversational satisfaction. A sample (N = 206) of undergraduate students were paired in unacquainted dyads and then engaged in initial interaction conversations in either a face-to-face (FtF) or CMC context. The researchers measured social anxiety before the conversation and a number of outcomes after the conversation. The results revealed that CMC is a significant contingent condition to the association between social anxiety and one’s partner’s perception of this anxiety and a contingent condition to the association between social anxiety and one’s partner’s conversational satisfaction.     

Getting to know you: Face-to-face versus online interactions

It is an open question as to how impressions formed via computer-mediated communication (CMC) differ from those formed face-to-face (FtF). Some research suggests that judgments of others formed while interacting over CMC are more favorable than judgments formed in FtF, while other researchers argue the pattern is in the opposite direction. We sought to settle this conflict by examining impressions formed via each communication mode while controlling for the other. Participants interacted with a partner twice: once FtF and once CMC. When controlling for each communication mode, participants interacting FtF, formed more positive impressions of their partner than did those in the other sequence. Furthermore, FtF participants had greater self-other agreement then those who interacted via CMC. Implications for impressions formed over the Internet are discussed.     

Does ‘cyber-conformity’ vary cross-culturally? Exploring the effect of culture and communication medium on social conformity

Previous research has established that individuals from collectivistic cultures tend to conform more than their counterparts from individualistic cultures do [Bond, R., & Smith, P.B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin 119(1) 111–137]. However, there is presently a dearth of research exploring the degree to which this kind of cross-cultural difference is also present in computer-mediated communication (CMC) contexts where group members are never met face-to-face (f-t-f). A normative social influence paradigm of line-length judgment (based on Asch [Asch, S.E., (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American 193(5) 31–35]) was employed to investigate the effects of communication medium (f-t-f against CMC) and culture (participants from individualistic cultures against those from collectivist cultures). A communication type × culture interaction was found, in which the expected cultural differences were demonstrated only in the face-to-face conditions, being absent in computer-mediated conditions.     

Democracy in computer-mediated communication: Gender,communicative style,and amount of participation in professional listservs

This study examined the claim of democracy in computer-mediated communication with regard to amount of participation and communicative style of genders and the effect of topic of discussion on these aspects. To this aim, 300 randomly- chosen messages from two listservs (language testing and taxonomy) were coded for the number of female and male participants, frequency and length of messages, frequency of new topics, frequency of responses to each topic type and to the same and cross gender topics, stylistic features of females’ and males’ language, and frequency of flaming. For each aspect of analysis, χ² statistical test was applied to examine the significance of the differences between genders in and across the lists. The results indicated that given the amount of participation, the democracy claim was breached as male dominance and presence was more ubiquitous. However, the results supported the provision of a democratic platform as far as manner of participation is concerned since both genders presented common communicative needs and priorities and there was no support for differentiation of genders’ communicative styles. The findings promise implications for EFL/ESL education.     

Sustaining computer-mediated communication in university courses

Abstract In the second of two graduate classes with the same title and content, the volume of on-line messages per person, in the four weeks sampled, was more than seven times higher than in the first. Between weeks l-2 and weeks 5-6, the total number of messages per person dropped in the first class and rose in the second. Each class had a different computer-mediated communication (CMC) system and was given different guidelines for use. This paper analyses differences in volume and hypothesises a relationship between system characteristics, guidelines for use, and the perpetuation of verbal interaction in settings where CMC is mandated.     

The effectiveness of synchronous computer-mediated communication for solving hidden-profile problems: Further empirical evidence

We experimentally compared the effectiveness of face-to-face (FTF) and synchronous computer-mediated communication when using a chat tool in solving hidden-profile business problems. In such problems, information critical to its solution is dispersed among team members and they must share it to solve the problem. Unlike prior research using hidden-profile tasks, our study used a real-world business-oriented task, established real rather than ad hoc teams, and imposed a time constraint on them. Hypotheses derived from media richness theory were found to be supported, with the results revealing that computer-mediated teams using the chat tool were less successful in exchanging and processing information than FTF teams and were thus less successful at solving the hidden-profile problem. The results also showed that, when operating under a time constraint, FTF was preferred over computer-mediated communication due to the relative immediacy of feedback and multiplicity of cues available in the FTF setting, as media richness theory predicted.     

Gender differences in an on-line learning environment

This paper focuses upon the use of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) in a specific learning context by a small community of postgraduate (MEd) distance learners and their tutors. Content analysis of on-line dialogues was used to investigate learning and socio-emotional behaviour within this community. The data presented suggests that men and women took distinctively different roles in the on-line learning environment. Most significantly, the cognitive and metacognitive (learning) content of on-line seminar contributions by men and women was found to be similar, but their social and interactive behaviour was significantly different. In particular, it was found that within a formal on-line learning environment men sent (on average) more messages than women; they wrote messages which were twice as long as those sent my women; and made more socio-emotional contributions than women. Women, however, were found to contribute more 'interactive' messages than men. This paper concludes that the application of CMC technology to a specific learning context may reproduce gender differences within a learning community.     

Emotion encoding and interpretation in computer-mediated communication: Reasons for use

As computer-mediated communication (CMC) is increasingly used to build and maintain relationships, the examination of channel choice for the development of these social ties becomes important to study. Using free response data from Riordan and Kreuz (submitted for publication), we examine reasons for choosing among face-to-face, asynchronous email, or synchronous instant message channels to transmit negatively or positively valenced emotional information. The most common reason for choosing face-to-face over channels of CMC was the ability to use more nonverbal cues. The most common reason for choosing a CMC channel over face-to-face was to shield oneself from the message recipient. Face-to-face was deemed more effective, more personal, more comfortable, and less permanent than CMC channels. Reasons differed significantly by valence and channel. We suggest that better knowledge of why people choose certain channels for different types of socio-emotional communication can help develop more comprehensive theories of CMC that account for different attributes of each channel in information transmission.     

Effects of training on computer-mediated communication in single or mixed gender small task groups

Previous studies by the current authors have indicated that group gender composition can be linked to particular communication styles in small task groups involved in computer-mediated communication. Female only groups were more likely to engage in a pattern that emphasized self-disclosure, statements of personal opinion, “I” statements and coalition language. This “High Communication Style”(HCS) was linked to high group satisfaction, and high group development. The present study attempts to train small task groups in the use of HCS. Experimental groups (Female Only, Male Only, and Mixed) were actively trained in computer-mediated communication and the use of the HCS style. The Control Groups of similar composition were actively trained in the use of e-mail etiquette guidelines that focused on using or avoiding specific formats in their messages. Results indicated that the Experimental Groups had significantly higher levels of self-disclosure and of opinion. Male Only groups showed significantly lower participation than did either Mixed or Female Only groups. Female Only groups scored higher in Group Development than either Mixed or Male Only groups. Contrary to previous studies, however, there were no significant relationships between group development or satisfaction and language content variables. The authors call for further research in the area of communication training for on-line task groups.     

Effects of instructions on computer-mediated communication in single- or mixed-gender small task groups

This study extends recent studies of gender and computer-mediated communication (CMC) in work groups which found a pattern of relationships between group activity and gender composition that helps understand satisfaction and productivity. The following hypotheses are tested: (a) participants in groups receiving group development encouraging instructions will show higher levels of participation, group development, and satisfaction than participants in groups receiving standard e-mail etiquette instructions; and (b) across gender composition conditions, group development will be positively related to use of self-disclosure, opinion, and coalition building language, and inversely related to use of facts, argumentativeness, and coarse and abusive language. Generally, the first hypothesis was not supported. However, closer examination indicates that groups' “gendered” communication styles may have overridden the experimental procedure so this hypothesis may not have been adequately tested. The second hypothesis concerning the relationship between group development and use of specific communication patterns is supported. The ability of some participants to demonstrate successful socioemotional behaviors in the test-based CMC medium suggests the need to reexamine theories which propose that communication is determined solely by its medium. Rather than focusing on the characteristics of the medium, it might be more productive to focus on the characteristics of the communication to understand CMC in small task groups.     

Sexting: Adaptation of sexual behavior to modern technologies

This is the first research that aim to analyze the practice of Sexting in Portugal. The goals of this study included comparing the differences between the Sexting dimensions and independent factors (gender, age, literacy qualifications, profession, residence, marital status, existence of a stable relationship, most used media, place of frequent use of the media, most commonly used technological device, security perception of communication technology, number of text messages sent per day, recipients of text messages) and corroborating the existence of correlations between the Sexting dimensions. The study sample consisted of 301 individuals aged between 18 and 52 years (158 adults and 143 young adults) and included both females (169) and males (132). The instruments used included a translated and adapted version of the Sex and Tech Survey, created by The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, and the elaboration of 7 social and demographic questions and 6 questions about media consumption and daily technology use. The results showed that environment exposure was higher in males as well as in the group of individuals of both sexes who sent approximately 76–90 written messages per day. By contrast, positive emotions and the development of greater interest in Sexting were higher in women. Positive emotions were higher in young adults, students of both sexes and unemployed persons.