Numerical simulation and experimental investigation on friction stir welding of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy

A modified three-dimensional model was established to simulate the friction stir welding of the 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. A detailed calculating method of the heat generation was proposed by taking account of the contact conditions between the tool and the work-piece. The results show that the heat mainly generated within the region close to the shoulder, the high temperature exists within the upper portion of the weld and decreases along the thickness direction. The strong material flow mainly occurs within the region around the tool and the material ahead of the tool sweeps toward the RS and finally deposits behind the tool. During this procedure the material is extruded to experience different shear orientations, and a defect-prone region exists in the region where material flow is weak. The temperature field and material flow behaviors predicted by the simulation method are in good agreement with the results obtained by the experiments.     

6061-T6铝合金中厚板-节点套多层多道焊数值模拟

为研究铝合金中厚板-节点套接头在多层多道焊后的残余应力和变形分布,本文基于ABAQUS软件建立了该接头三维有限元模型,采用双椭球热源、生死单元法以及顺序耦合法,对6061-T6铝合金中厚板-节点套多层多道焊进行数值模拟,并分析了接头的温度场,以及在夹具约束下的焊接残余应力及变形的分布情况。研究结果表明:数值模拟与实际接头的熔池形状吻合度较高;摆动焊接过程中温度曲线呈多峰结构;焊件的升温速率明显大于冷却速率,且冷却速率随时间逐渐减小;焊接残余应力主要集中在焊缝及夹具区域,且小于6061-T6铝合金在室温下的屈服强度;接头的最大横向残余应力为129.9 MPa,中厚板上的横向残余应力大于节点套上的横向残余应力;接头的最大纵向残余应力为132.9 MPa,沿焊接方向,焊缝处的纵向残余应力呈山峰状分布;该接头在Y轴方向上的变形最大,为1.494 mm,该接头的最终变形结果为上凸变形。     

Nanomechanical properties of friction stir welded AA6082-T6 aluminum alloy

Lightweight alloys are of major concern, due to their functionality and applications in transport and industry applications. Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state welding process for joining aluminum and other metallic alloys and has been employed in aerospace, rail, automotive and marine industries. Compared to the conventional welding techniques, FSW produces joints which do not exhibit defects caused by melting. The objective of the present study is to investigate the surface hardness (H) and elastic modulus (E) in friction stir welded aluminum alloy AA6082-T6. The findings of the present study reveal that the welding process softens the material, since the weld nugget is the region where the most deformations are recorded (dynamic recrystallization, production of an extremely fine, equiaxial structure), confirmed by optical microscopy and reduced nanomechanical properties in the welding zone. A yield-type pop-in occurs upon low loading and represents the start of phase transformation, which is monitored through a gradual slope change of the load-displacement curve. Significant pile-up is recorded during nanoindentation of the alloy through SPM imaging.     

Precipitation hardening and hydrogen embrittlement of aluminum alloy AA7020

AA7020 Al–Mg–Zn, a medium strength aluminium alloy, is used in welded structures in military and aerospace applications. As it may be subjected to extremes of environmental exposures, including high pressure liquid hydrogen, it could suffer hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen susceptibility of alloy AA7020 was evaluated by slow strain-rate tensile testing, and delayed failure testing of hydrogen-charged specimens of air-cooled, duplexaged, and water-quenched duplex agedmaterials. The resistance to hydrogen embrittlement of the alloy was found to be in the order of air-cooled duplex aged alloy > as-received (T6 condition) > water quenched duplex aged material.     

Microstructural evolution in friction self-piercing riveted aluminum alloy AA7075-T6 joints

Friction self-piercing riveting(F-SPR)is an emerging technique for low ductility materials joining,which creates a mechanical and solid-state hybrid joint with a semi-hollow rivet.The severe plastic deforma-tion of work materials and localized elevated temperatures during the F-SPR process yield complex and heterogeneous microstructures.The cut-off action of the work materials by the rivet further compli-cates the material flow during joint formation.This study employed the F-SPR process to join AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy sheets and systematically investigated the microstructural evolutions using electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)techniques.The results suggested that as the base material approached the rivet,grains were deformed and recrystallized,forming two distinct fine grain zones(FGZs)surround-ing the rivet and in the rivet cavity,respectively.Solid-state bonding of aluminum sheets occurred in the FGZs.The formation of FGZ outside the rivet is due to dynamic recrystallization(DRX)triggered by the sliding-to-sticking transition at the rivet/sheet interface.The FGZ in the rivet cavity was caused by the rotation of the trapped aluminum,which created a sticking affected zone at the trapped aluminum/lower sheet interface and led to DRX.Strain rate gradient in the trapped aluminum drove the further expansion of the sticking affected zone and resulted in grain refinement in a larger span.     

Identification of modes of fracture in a 2618-T6 aluminum alloy using stereophotogrammetry

The identification and the development of a quantification technique of the modes of fracture in fatigue fracture surfaces of a 2618-T6 aluminum alloy were developed during this research. Fatigue tests at room and high temperature (230 °C) were carried out to be able to compare the microscopic fractographic features developed by this material under these testing conditions. The overall observations by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the fracture surfaces showed a mixture of transgranular and ductile intergranular fracture. The ductile intergranular fracture contribution appears to be more significant at room temperature than at 230 °C. A quantitative methodology was developed to identify and to measure the contribution of these microscopic fractographic features. The technique consisted of a combination of stereophotogrammetry and image analysis. Stereo-pairs were randomly taken along the crack paths and were then analyzed using the profile module of MeX software. The analysis involved the 3-D surface reconstruction, the trace of primary profile lines in both vertical and horizontal directions within the stereo-pair area, the measurements of the contribution of the modes of fracture in each profile, and finally, the calculation of the average contribution in each stereo-pair. The technique results confirmed a higher contribution of ductile intergranular fracture at room temperature than at 230 °C. Moreover, there was no indication of a direct relationship between this contribution and the strain amplitudes range applied during the fatigue testing.     

Prediction of hardness minimum locations during natural aging in an aluminum alloy 6061-T6 friction stir weld

This study describes a method that can predict the hardness minimum location as a function of natural aging time in a heat-treatable 6061-T6 Al alloy plate subjected to friction stir welding (FSW). First, temperature distributions were simulated in the FSW plate by finite element modeling. Second, to determine the natural aging kinetics, hardness changes were measured as a function of natural aging time from a number of Al specimens that had been isothermally heat treated at different peak temperatures. Finally, the simulated temperature profiles and the natural aging kinetics were correlated to predict the hardness profiles in the FSW plate. The predicted hardness minimum locations are consistent with the measured hardness profiles in that the hardness moves away from the weld centerline as the aging time increases. Moreover, the predicted hardness minimum is located at the similar position of failure in cross-weld tensile samples.     

Crack closure in 2219-T851 aluminum alloy

The effects of specimen thickness, stress ratio ($\text{R}$) and maximum stress intensity factor ($\text{K}{}_{\max }$) on crack closure (or opening) were studied using a 2219-T851 aluminum alloy. The crack length and the occurrence of crack closure were measured by an electrical potential method. The experimental work was carried out within the framework of linear-elastic fracture mechanics.The experimental results show that the onset of crack closure (or opening) dependes on $\text{R, K}{}_{\mathrm{<mtext>max</mtext>}}$), and specimen thickness. In terms of the “effective stress intensity range ratio” ($\text{U}$), as defined by Elber, the results show that $\text{U}$ tends to increase for increasing $\text{R}$, decrease for increasing $\text{K}{}_{\max }$, and decrease with increasing specimen thickness. From these trends, it is shown that the “effective stress intensity range” ($\text{ΔK}{}_{\mathrm{<mtext>eff</mtext>}}$) does not always increase with increasing stress intensity range ($\text{ΔK}$).The experimental results show that crack closure cannot fully account for the effects of stress ratio, specimen thickness and $\text{K}{}_{\max }$ on fatigue crack growth. The use of $\text{ΔK}{}_{\mathrm{<mtext>eff</mtext>}}$ as a parameter for characterizing the mechanical driving force for fatigue crack growth is questioned.     

Microstructure and tensile properties of friction welded aluminum alloy AA7075-T6

Solid-state welding processes like friction welding and friction stir welding are now being actively considered for welding aluminum alloy AA7075. In this work, friction welding of AA7075-T6 rods of 13 mm diameter was investigated with an aim to understand the effects of process parameters on weld microstructure and tensile properties. Welds made with various process parameter combinations (incorporating Taguchi methods) were subjected to tensile tests. Microstructural studies and hardness tests were also conducted. The results show that sound joints in AA7075-T6 can be achieved using friction welding, with a joint efficiency of 89% in as-welded condition with careful selection of process parameters. The effects of process parameters are discussed in detail based on microstructural observations.     

高周疲劳载荷下6061-T6铝合金的温度演化

为了研究金属材料在疲劳载荷下的温度变化,采用红外热像系统对高周疲劳载荷下6061-T6铝合金的温度演化进行分析,用热像图对疲劳裂纹尖端的塑性区进行测量.结果显示,疲劳加载作用下,循环次数达到107次时6061-T6铝合金试样表面温度的变化分为四个阶段:初始温升阶段、温度缓降阶段、温度二次缓慢上升阶段和温度快速上升阶段.结合热弹性理论、铝合金塑性变形的微观机制分析并预测疲劳载荷下温度的演化和宏观裂纹扩展时裂纹尖端塑性区域大小.宏观裂纹开始扩展时,裂纹尖端的塑性区域可达3.6 mm2,红外热像仪测得结果为3.46 mm2,测试结果与理论结果吻合.     

A study of fatigue crack growth of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy

Both standard and non-standard compact specimens were employed to experimentally study the crack growth behavior of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy in ambient air. The effects of the stress ratio (R), overloading, underloading, and high–low sequence loading on fatigue crack growth rate were investigated. Significant R-ratio effect was identified. At the same R-ratio, the influence of specimen geometry on the relationship between crack growth rate and stress intensity factor range was insignificant. A single overload retarded the crack growth rate significantly. A slight acceleration of crack growth rate was identified after a single underload. The crack growth rate resumed after the crack propagated out of the influencing plastic zone created by the overload or underload. A parameter combining the stress intensity factor range and the maximum stress intensity factor can correlate the crack growth at different stress ratios well when the R-ratio ranged from −2 to 0.5. The parameter multiplied by a correction factor can be used to predict the crack growth with the influence of the R-ratio, overloading, underloading, and high–low sequence loading. Wheeler’s model cannot describe the variation of fatigue crack growth with the crack length being in the overload influencing zone. A modified Wheeler’s model based on the evolution of the remaining affected plastic zone was found to predict well the influence of the overload and sequence loading on the crack growth.     

Fatigue behavior of a 7075-T6 aluminum alloy coated with an electroless Ni–P deposit

An investigation has been carried out in order to study the fatigue and corrosion–fatigue behavior of a 7075-T6 aluminum alloy coated with an electroless Ni–P (EN) deposit, in the as-plated condition, of approximately 38–40 μm in thickness and a high P content, of approximately 18 wt%. The results obtained, show that the EN coating can give rise to a significant improvement in the fatigue and corrosion–fatigue performance of the substrate, depending on the testing conditions. When the coated system is tested in air, it is observed that the increase in fatigue properties decreases as the alternating stress applied to the material increases. At stresses of the order of 0.4 σ_0.2% the increase in fatigue life is more than about 100%. However, as the stress increases to values in the range of 0.7 σ_0.2%, no improvement in the fatigue performance of the system is observed and the behavior is similar to that of the uncoated substrate. Under corrosion–fatigue conditions, the fatigue life is observed to increase between approximately 60% and 70%, depending on the stress applied. It is shown that fatigue cracks are associated with nodular-like defects present on the surface of the coated samples. The deleterious effect of such defects seems to be more pronounced as the alternating stress applied to the material increases. A crude estimate of the yield strength of the EN coating from tensile measurements indicates that such a parameter is in the range of 3.8 GPa, in agreement with the computation of the absolute hardness of the deposit, of about 4 GPa, by means of Meyer’s law. It is also shown that the EN deposit has a very good adhesion to the substrate even when the system is subjected to tensile stresses greater than the yield strength. Such characteristics as well as the higher mechanical properties of the EN coating in comparison with the aluminum alloy substrate and the preservation of its integrity during fatigue testing contribute to the better fatigue performance of the coated system.     

Fatigue behavior of AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy coated with ZrN by PVD

The present investigation has been conducted in order to study the effect of the deposition of a ZrN coating, of 3 μm in thickness, on the static mechanical properties and fatigue behavior of a 7075-T6 aluminum alloy substrate. It has been determined that the coating deposition process gives rise to a significant decrease in such properties, which is not fully compensated for the presence of the film. When fatigue tests were carried out in a 3 wt.% NaCl solution at low alternating stresses, the ZrN film partially compensated for the decrease in fatigue properties of the coated substrate. Extensive delamination of the coating from the substrate was observed under the action of cyclic stresses greater than approximately 220 MPa. Below this stress and in the presence of NaCl, the behavior of the coated material approached that of the uncoated alloy, which highlighted the good corrosion resistance of the ZrN coating and its ability to protect the substrate when it remained adhered to the latter.     

Intergranular corrosion behavior of the 7075-T6 aluminum alloy under different annealing conditions

The effect of annealing conditions producing various grain sizes on the intergranular corrosion behavior of high-strength aluminum alloy type 7075-T6 was investigated using electrochemical polarization techniques. Aluminum alloy specimens with large grain size exhibited lower breakdown potentials in deaerated 0.5 M NaCl solution. The breakdown potentials decreased with increasing grain size. Microscopic observations of the exposed surfaces during potentiostatic polarization testing showed that the coarse grain structure promotes intergranular crack growth.     

Hot deformation of AA6082-T4 aluminum alloy

High-temperature tensile deformation of 6082-T4 Al alloy was conducted in the range of 623–773 K at various strain rates in the range of 5 × 10⁻⁵ to 2 × 10⁻² s⁻¹. Stress dependence of the strain rate revealed a stress exponent, n of 7 throughout the ranges of temperatures and strain rates tested. This stress exponent is higher than what is usually observed in Al–Mg alloys under similar experimental conditions, which implies the presence of threshold stress. This behavior results from dislocation interaction with second phase particles (Mg₂Si). The experimental threshold stress values were calculated, based on the finding that creep rate is viscous glide controlled, based on creep tests conducted on binary Al–1Mg at 673 K, that gave n a value of 3. The threshold stress (σ _o) values were seen to decrease exponentially with temperature. The apparent activation energy for 6082-T4 was calculated to be about 245 kJ mol⁻¹, which is higher than the activation energy for self-diffusion in Al (Q _d = 143 kJ mol⁻¹) and for the diffusion of Mg in Al (115–130 kJ mol⁻¹). By incorporating the threshold stress in the analysis, the true activation energy was calculated to be about 107 kJ mol⁻¹. Analysis of strain rate dependence in terms of the effective stress (σ − σ _o) using normalized parameters, revealed a single type of deformation behavior. A plot of normalized strain rate () versus normalized effective stress (σ − σ _o)/G, on a double logarithmic scale, gave an n value of 3. Ehab A. El-Danaf—on leave from the Department of Mechanical Design and Production, College of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt.     

Flow stress and ductility of AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy at low deformation temperatures

The present investigation has been conducted in order to develop a rational approach able to describe the changes in flow stress of AA7075-T6 aluminum alloy with deformation temperature and strain rate, when this material is deformed at temperatures in the range of 123-298 K at strain rates in the range of 4 × 10⁻⁴ to 5 × 10⁻² s⁻¹. The constitutive formulation that has been advanced to accomplish these objectives represents a simplified form of the mechanical threshold stress (flow stress at 0 K) model developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory (Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA). Thus, it is assumed that the current flow stress of the material arises from both athermal and thermal barriers to dislocation motion. In the present case, the effect of three thermal barriers has been considered: solid solution, precipitation hardening and work-hardening. The first two effects do not evolve during plastic deformation, whereas the last one is considered as an evolutionary component of the flow stress. Such an evolution is described by means of the hardening law earlier advanced by Estrin and Mecking (1984) [20]. The law is implemented in differential form and is integrated numerically in order to update the changes in strain rate that occur during tensile tests carried out both at constant and variable crosshead speed. The extrapolation of the hardening components from 0 K to finite temperatures is accomplished by means of the model earlier advanced by Kocks (1976) [19]. The results illustrate that the constitutive formulation developed in this way is able to describe quite accurately both the flow stress and work-hardening rate of the material, as well as temperature and strain rate history effects that are present when deformation conditions change in the course of plastic deformation. The evaluation of the ductility of the alloy indicates that the changes in this property are mainly determined by deformation temperature rather by strain rate. When deformation temperature decreases from 298 to 123 K, ductility also decreases from ∼35 to 24%. However, despite these relatively small variations, significant changes in the fracture morphology could be observed on the fracture surfaces of the examined specimens, with the predominance of a mixed ductile-brittle mechanism at lower temperatures.