Racial identity, social context, and race-related social cognition in African Americans during middle childhood.

This study examined the effect of changes in racial identity, cross-race friendships, same-race friendships, and classroom racial composition on changes in race-related social cognition from 3rd to 5th grade for 73 African American children. The goal of the study was to determine the extent to which preadolescent racial identity and social context predict expectations of racial discrimination in cross-race social interactions (social expectations). Expectations of racial discrimination were assessed using vignettes of cross-race social situations involving an African American child in a social interaction with European Americans. There were 3 major findings. First, expectations for discrimination declined slightly from 3rd to 5th grade. Second, although racial composition of children's classrooms, number of European American friends, gender, and family poverty status were largely unrelated to social expectations, having more African American friends was associated with expecting more discrimination in cross-racial interactions from 3rd to 5th grade. Third, increases in racial centrality were related to increases in discrimination expectations, and increases in public regard were associated with decreases in discrimination expectations. These data suggest that as early as 3rd grade, children are forming attitudes about their racial group that have implications for their cross-race social interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of solo status, academic rank, and perceived distinctiveness to job satisfaction of racial/ethnic minorities.

The relationships among solo status of racial/ethnic minorities in psychology departments, job satisfaction, and subjective feelings of distinctiveness were examined. Distinctiveness was defined as stigmatizing feelings associated with token status of racial/ethnic minorities in academia. It was hypothesized that minorities in positions of solo (relative to nonsolo) status within their departments, members of more stigmatized groups, and minorities occupying lower academic ranks would feel more distinctive and less satisfied with their jobs and that perceptions of distinctiveness would mediate job satisfaction. The data partially supported these hypotheses, most notably for African Americans. The implications of situational salience and the importance of recognizing differences among and between minority groups are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity of the 1994 Strong Interest Inventory with racial and ethnic groups in the United States.

During the revision of the 1994 Strong Interest Inventory (SII; Harmon, Hansen, Borgen & Hammer, 1994), information was obtained about the race–ethnicity and careers of over 55,000 employed adults in 50 different occupations. The national norm group, the general reference sample, contains 18,789 individuals who identified their race–ethnicity in the following manner: 378 African Americans; 363 Asian Americans; 17,365 Caucasian Americans; 349 Hispanic Americans/Latinos (Latinas); and 77 Native Americans/American Indians. Concurrent validity across racial–ethnic groups was examined by typing their 50 occupations into the appropriate Holland (1997) job family. Then the General Occupational Themes, the SII scales corresponding to Holland's (1997) 6 vocational personality types, were examined for their ability to predict Holland (1997) job family in similar ways for the different racial–ethnic groups. Results generally showed comparable validity and interpretive counseling implications in using the SII with these racial–ethnic groups. Some interesting trends and important limitations were also noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural sharing in a global village: Evidence for extracultural cognition in European Americans.

The authors examined the effects of exposure to foreign cultural environments and symbols on decision making among European Americans. Although European Americans predicted change less frequently than East Asians did (Pilot Study A), European Americans anticipated greater change when primed with East Asian culturally-laden locations (Pilot Study B and Study 1) and the East Asian yin–yang symbol (Studies 2–7). These effects held in the domains of stock prediction and weather forecasting and were stronger the more familiar European Americans were with the cultural primes, and the longer they had spent overseas. Together, these findings suggest that familiar culturally-laden cues sometimes prime people within one cultural milieu to make so-called extracultural judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Chronic stress burden, discrimination, and subclinical carotid artery disease in African American and Caucasian women.

This study examined the association between a composite index of stress that included measures of life events, ongoing stress, discrimination, and economic hardship and subclinical carotid disease among 109 African American and 225 Caucasian premenopausal women. African Americans reported more chronic stress and had higher carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) as compared with Caucasians. Among African Americans only, the composite stress index and unfair treatment were associated with higher IMT. These effects were partially mediated by biological risk factors. African Americans who reported experiencing racial discrimination had marginally more carotid plaque than did those who did not report experiencing racial discrimination. The results suggest that African Americans may be particularly vulnerable to the burden of chronic stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discrimination and unfair treatment: Relationship to cardiovascular reactivity among African American and European American women.

This study examined the relationship of cardiovascular reactivity to both interpersonal mistreatment and discrimination in a community-based sample of African American and European American women (N?=?363) in midlife. Subtle mistreatment related positively to diastolic blood pressure (DBP) reactivity for African American participants but not their European American counterparts. Moreover, among the African American participants, those who attributed mistreatment to racial discrimination exhibited greater average DBP reactivity. In particular, these women demonstrated greater DBP reactivity to the speech task, which bore similarities to an encounter with racial prejudice but not to a nonsocial mirror tracing task. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that racial discrimination is a chronic stressor that can negatively impact the cardiovascular health of African Americans through pathogenic processes associated with physiologic reactivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Status and the judgment of occupational prestige.

"A test was made of the hypothesis that high status subjects would displace their judgments of moderate and low prestige occupations towards the low end of the prestige dimension. A comparison of the judgments of Yale students and previously published judgments of a nationwide sample supported the hypothesis. The results were attributed to the high status (Yale) subjects using their own actual or expected positions on the occupational prestige dimensions as internal anchors. Two explanations [Helson (1948), Volkmann (1951)] of the anchor effect were discussed." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical discipline among African American and European American mothers: Links to children's externalizing behaviors.

The aim of this study was to test whether the relation between physical discipline and child aggression was moderated by ethnic-group status. A sample of 466 European American and 100 African American children from a broad range of socioeconomic levels were followed from kindergarten through 3rd grade. Mothers reported their use of physical discipline in interviews and questionnaires, and mothers, teachers, and peers rated children's externalizing problems annually. The interaction between ethnic status and discipline was significant for teacher- and peer-rated externalizing scores; physical discipline was associated with higher externalizing scores, but only among European American children. These findings provide evidence that the link between physical punishment and child aggression may be culturally specific. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What college students really think about ethnic student organizations.

In this study, the authors examined European, Hispanic, and African American college students' attitudes toward ethnic student organizations (ESOs). Based on data from Study 1 (N = 750), it was found that students across ethnic groups expressed uncertainty about whether ESOs were beneficial/necessary, fair/acceptable, and about their interest in joining an ESO. As a group, Hispanic and African American students did not believe that ESOs contributed to racial or ethnic separatism on campus, whereas European Americans expressed uncertainty about that possibility. In Study 2, a separate sample of students (N = 631) was randomly assigned to read the mission statement of a White, Hispanic, or African American ESO. Consistent with asymmetry theory, students in general judged the White American ESO as significantly less beneficial/necessary, less fair/acceptable, and as contributing more to racial/ethnic separatism than the Hispanic and African American ESOs. European, Hispanic, and African American students viewed their own ESO most favorably, although European American students were more consistent in their appraisals of ESOs irrespective of the ethnic focus of the ESO. Implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital psychological and physical aggression and children's mental and physical health: Direct, mediated, and moderated effects.

Relations between marital aggression (psychological and physical) and children's health were examined. Children's emotional insecurity was assessed as a mediator of these relations, with distinctions made between marital aggression against mothers and fathers and ethnicity (African American or European American), socioeconomic status, and child gender examined as moderators of effects. Participants were 251 community-recruited families, with multiple reporters of each construct. Aggression against either parent yielded similar effects for children. Children's emotional insecurity mediated the relation between marital aggression and children's internalizing, externalizing, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. No differences were found in these pathways for African American and European American families or as a function of socioeconomic status or child gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of person-environment fit in the job satisfaction and tenure intentions of African American employees.

In light of speculation that the determinants of job satisfaction and tenure for African American employees may not be adequately captured by the theory of work adjustment (TWA; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984), in the present study the authors tested assumptions of the TWA with an African American sample by (a) examining the strength of fit-satisfaction and fit-turnover intentions relationships, (b) testing the ability of racial climate to moderate the fit-satisfaction and fit-turnover intentions relationships, (c) analyzing qualitative data related to the determinants of job satisfaction, and (d) investigating potential differences in the fit-satisfaction and fit-turnover intentions relationships for African Americans and European Americans. Self-report data were collected from African American employees (n = 204) that assessed fit perceptions, departmental racial climate, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions. African American employees' reports of fit perceptions explained variance in job satisfaction (43.20%) and turnover intentions (20.20%); however, racial climate did not emerge as a moderator. Qualitative results supported these findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Insights, Hope, Kindness, and Confusion: Odyssey of a Psychoanalyst.

Insights from the author's previous systematic research and psychoanalytic observations are summarized. In a nationwide Gallup sample, segregation was found destructive to African Americans and Whites, although differently so. Clinical experience delineated the number 4 as a symbol, the helpfulness of psychoanalysis, and meanings of schizophrenic symptoms. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) pathogenesis (unconsciously based hurtful parenting) differentiated both parents of schizophrenics and inadequate therapists. A controlled project demonstrated that 70 sessions of psychoanalytic therapy were more helpful than medication with respect to schizophrenic thought disorder, hospitalization, and living a more human life. Masked clinical judgments from Rorschachs, TATs, and interviews were found to be valid. Clinical papers described treating lower socioeconomic status patients, not eating, the 4 bases of delusions, and the necessity to be kind, tolerant, stubborn, and confused and to avoid abstractions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individualistic and collectivistic worldviews: Implications for understanding perceptions of racial discrimination in African Americans and British Caribbean Americans.

Cultural worldviews and perceived racial discrimination were examined among Americans (n = 106) and British Caribbean Americans (n = 95), both of African descent, who were recruited through university student organizations, community organizations, and snowball sampling. Consistent with public perceptions of differences in the experience of race among these 2 groups, multiple regression analyses revealed African Americans were more likely than British Caribbean Americans to perceive racial discrimination in the United States. In addition, a cultural worldview focus on individuality and equality (i.e., horizontal individualism) moderated the relationship between ethnic group and perceived racial discrimination. British Caribbean Americans who endorsed greater agreement with horizontal individualism were less likely to perceive racial discrimination. The same worldview was unrelated to African Americans' perceptions of racial discrimination. The results are discussed with respect to within-group heterogeneity among persons of African descent. Implications for counseling persons of African descent and future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of color-blind racial attitudes in reactions to racial discrimination on social network sites.

This study examines associations between responses to online racial discrimination, more specifically, racial theme party images on social network sites and color-blind racial attitudes. We showed 217 African American and European American college students images and prompted them to respond as if they were writing on a friend’s “wall” on Facebook or MySpace. Reactions to racial theme party images were not bothered, not bothered-ambivalent, bothered-ambivalent, and bothered. A multinomial logistic regression revealed that participants differed in their reactions to the images based on their racial group and color-blind racial ideology. European Americans and participants high in racial color blindness were more likely to be in the not bothered reaction group. Further, these students were more likely to condone and even encourage the racial theme party practice by laughing at the photos and affirming the party goers. Conversely, those low in color blindness were vocal in their opposition to the images with some reporting that they would “defriend” a person who engaged in the practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of Afrocentric features in person perception: Judging by features and categories.

Four studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that group-related physical features may directly activate related stereotypes, leading to more stereotypic inferences over and above those resulting from categorization. As predicted, targets with more Afrocentric features were judged as more likely to have traits stereotypic of African Americans. This effect was found with judgments of African Americans and of European Americans. Furthermore, the effect was not eliminated when a more sensitive measure of categorization processes (category accessibility) was used or when the judgement context made category distinctions salient. Of additional interest was the finding that category accessibility independently affected judgment, such that targets who could be more quickly categorized as group members were judged more stereotypically. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of discrete emotions on young children's ability to discern fantasy and reality.

This study examined 3- to 5-year-olds' (N = 128; 54% girls) ability to discriminate emotional fantasy and reality. Children viewed images depicting fantastic or real events that elicited several emotions, reported whether each event could occur, and rated their emotional reaction to the image. Children were also administered the Play Behavior Questionnaire and Pretend Action Tasks to assess play behaviors. Findings revealed age-related improvements in performance and biases in judgment based on the emotion depicted. Children reported that happy fantastic events could occur significantly more often than frightening and angry fantastic events and that happy real events could occur significantly more often than frightening and angry real events. Children's emotional reactions to the images but not play behaviors were significantly related to their fantasy-reality distinctions. Implications for the relation between emotions and children's fantasy-reality distinctions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of education to the racial gap in neonatal and postneonatal mortality

OBJECTIVE: To examine the impact of education on race differences in neonatal and postneonatal mortality. METHODS: Data were from North Carolina's Linked Birth and Infant Death File for 1988 through 1993. The study population included 169,601 African American births and 400,359 European American births, with 2606 and 3060 deaths, respectively. Multiple logistic regression was used to assess the effects of race and education on neonatal and postneonatal mortality, adjusting for sociodemographic, lifestyle, and medical risk factors. RESULTS: Risks of death were higher for African Americans than for European Americans, more so in the neonatal than in the postneonatal period. Odds ratios (with 95% confidence intervals in parentheses) comparing African Americans to European Americans were as follows: neonatal deaths, 2.2 (1.9-2.5), 2.3 (2.1-2.6), and 2.8 (2.5-3.2) for less than 12, 12, and more than 12 years of education; and postneonatal deaths, 1.3 (1.1-1.6), 1.5 (1.3-1.7), and 2.1 (1.7-2.6), respectively. The biggest gap was for deaths in the first day of life, with odds ratios ranging from 2.8 to 3.6. Education had no impact on neonatal mortality in either race. Medical factors were more influential in the neonatal than in the postneonatal period, whereas environmental and social factors appeared to play a greater role in the postneonatal period. CONCLUSIONS: Racial differences in neonatal death are increasing and may be related to inequities in the provision of health care. The racial gap in the postneonatal period, although declining, has not disappeared and may be more related to environmental, social, and economic factors.     

The development of ethnic identity during adolescence.

The development of ethnic identity is a critical facet of adolescence, particularly for adolescents of color. In order to examine the developmental trajectory of ethnic identity, African American, Latino American, and European American early and middle adolescents (N=420) were assessed over 3 years. Two components of ethnic identity were assessed--group-esteem was found to rise for both early and middle adolescents; exploration rose for middle adolescents. African Americans and Latino Americans were lower in group-esteem but have greater increases than European Americans, particularly across a school transition. The course of ethnic identity development during early and middle adolescence, the role of school context, and the variability in developmental trajectories among racial and ethnic groups are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapists' race and African American clients' reactions to therapy.

This study examines the posttherapy reactions and attitudes of 44 African American clients seen at a university clinic in a midwestern city. Clients were randomly assigned to European American or African American therapists for 10 sessions of interpersonal or problem solving therapy. Therapy attitudes and reactions were assessed through clients' ratings of how well they understood and accepted the goals of therapy, their ability to accept and make use of therapeutic interventions, and perceptions of therapeutic benefit. The impact of European American therapists' efforts to cope with racial differences through therapist-initiated discussion of race in the first session or no therapist-initiated discussion of race were examined. African American clients' ratings of therapy indicated that there was a relationship between therapists' race and the understanding and acceptance of therapeutic interventions and perceived benefit of therapy. Clients rated therapeutic understanding and acceptance higher when assigned to an African American therapist. Therapists' initiation of or noninitiation of discussions of race had no affect on ratings of therapy. The clinical implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A localized double-quantum filter for the in vivo detection of brain glucose

OBJECTIVES: Despite decreasing infant mortality in North Carolina, the gap between African Americans and Whites persists. This study examined how racial differences in infant mortality vary by maternal education. METHODS: Data came from Linked Birth and Infant Death files for 1988 through 1993. Multiple logistic regression models adjusted for confounders. RESULTS: Infant mortality risk ratios comparing African Americans and Whites increased with higher levels of maternal education. Education beyond high school reduced risk of infant mortality by 20% among Whites but had little effect among African Americans. CONCLUSIONS: Higher education magnifies racial differences in infant mortality on a multiplicative scale. Possible reasons include greater stress, fewer economic resources, and poorer quality of prenatal care among African Americans.