Aggressive, prosocial, and nonsocial behavior in hyperactive boys: Dose effects of methylphenidate in naturalistic settings.

Given the importance of interpersonal interactions for hyperactive children, we evaluated the impact of methylphenidate on specific categories of social behavior in 25 boys, aged 6–12, with attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These children participated in a 3-week, double-blind, crossover trial with placebo and low (0.3 mg/kg) and moderate (0.6 mg/kg) dosages of methylphenidate during a naturalistic summer research program. Fifteen comparison boys, without problems in attention and behavior, were also observed. In addition to decreasing noncompliance, methylphenidate reduced a combined category of physical and verbal aggression for the ADHD boys, with a significant linear trend across dosages. The medication decreased aggression to levels comparable with those of the comparison boys. There were no medication effects on the frequency of nonsocial or prosocial behaviors. Results are discussed in light of the need to effect durable change in both the quantity and quality of social behavior for hyperactive children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of continuous and partial reinforcement and methylphenidate on learning in children with attention deficit disorder.

Measured the performance of 30 children (aged 5 yrs 11 mo to 11 yrs) with attention deficit disorder (ADD) on a nonsense-word spelling task. The effects of 2 reinforcement schedules, partial and continuous, and methylphenidate (MPHN [0.3 mg/kg]) were assessed. Ss were assigned to 1 of 3 groups—no reinforcement, continuous reinforcement, and partial reinforcement. They performed the spelling task twice, once after ingesting MPHN and once following placebo ingestion. Results indicate that both reward conditions had large and equivalent beneficial effects on learning, as did MPHN. When reinforcement was combined with MPHN, performance was maximized. The results fail to support V. I. Douglas's (1983, 1985) hypothesis that partial reinforcement schedules have adverse effects on hyperactive children. The results also demonstrate the incremental value of the combination of MPHN and reinforcement in treatment of ADD. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's first reading lesson: Variables influencing within-lesson emotional behavior and postlesson achievement.

Hypothesized that variables related to reading achievement are also related to emotions during reading instruction. Test variables selected were skill in word analysis and synthesis (WASS) and reading instruction approach (phonics—blending required vs whole word—nonblending). Ss were 20 5-yr-old prereaders, and the reading materials were from the Ball–Stick–Bird system. Ss were also administered the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Lessons were videotaped, and the Ss' emotions were rated along the dimensions of hyperactive/distractible, hostile/aggressive, and anxious/fearful. Results show that Ss' WASS was related to hostile/aggressive behaviors, and reading instruction approach was related to hyperactive/distractible behaviors. The interaction of WASS and reading instruction approach reveal that the 2 kinds of reading training are differentially effective for different children. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does stimulant medication improve the peer status of hyperactive children?

Although stimulants improve the social behaviors of hyperactive children, analogous changes in peer status have not been previously demonstrated. We compared peer appraisals of hyperactive boys (N?=?25) after placebo, 0.3 mg/kg, and 0.6 mg/kg methylphenidate (Ritalin). With the higher dose generally producing stronger effects, methylphenidate enhanced social standing, increasing nominations of hyperactive boys as best friends, cooperative, and fun to be with. These medication-related improvements, although important, did not normalize peer appraisals, and there was interindividual variability in medication response. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioning of verbal behavior as a function of awareness, need for social approval, and motivation to receive reinforcement.

This investigation evaluated the effects of awareness, need for social approval, and motivation to receive reinforcement on verbal conditioning. 61 male college students were reinforced with "good" for constructing sentences beginning with "I" or "we." Awareness and reinforcement motivation were assessed by an intensive postconditioning interview; need for social approval was measured by the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale. Ss aware of a correct response-reinforcement contingency gave more "I" and "we" sentences than Unaware Ss, who showed no evidence of learning. Aware Ss motivated to receive reinforcement gave more "I" and "we" sentences than unmotivated Aware Ss. Contrary to expectation, need for approval was not related to Ss' reinforcement motivation or performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of age and ritalin dosage on the mother–child interactions of hyperactive children.

Observed interactions between mothers and 54 hyperactive children in 3 age groups (4 yrs to 5 yrs 11 mo, 6 yrs to 7 yrs 11 mo, and 8 yrs to 9 yrs 11 mo) during a drug–placebo evaluation of 2 daily dosages (0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg) of Ritalin (methylphenidate). Results indicate few age or drug effects on social interactions during free play; however, numerous age and drug effects were seen in the task period. With age, children increased their compliance and decreased their negative behavior, and their mothers decreased their levels of control and management. Both doses of methylphenidate increased child compliance equally, but only at the higher dose were significant drug effects found on mothers' behavior: Mothers decreased their control and negative behavior toward children during the high-dose condition. Drug effects on these interactions were not affected by children's ages. It is concluded that although the parent–child interactions of hyperactive children improve with age, methylphenidate produces further improvements in task-related interactions. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in students' perceptions of routine classroom events.

144 Ss (72 males and 72 females) in Grades 1–5, who differed in classroom adjustment (according to teachers' judgments), were presented with 3 written vignettes portraying inappropriate student behavior. Interviews probed Ss' predictions of their teacher's motivation and response to the 3 vignette characters. Results show that Ss' reports varied across vignettes and differed primarily by grade level. Older Ss' responses were more elaborated and differentiating. Younger Ss' constructs tended to be more global, emotional, and value-laden. Females evidenced a more elaborate understanding of their teacher's motivation and behavior than males. Nonproblem Ss' working knowledge of the classroom, including discussion of their teacher, the vignette characters, and their reaction to them, did not differ from that of Ss who had a range of difficulties in the classroom. Of the troublesome Ss, only those diagnosed as hyperactive were notable for their differential responses. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Auditory attention in hyperactive children: Effects of stimulant medication on dichotic listening performance.

Administered dichotic digit tasks requiring free report and selective listening, respectively, to 20 6–16 yr old hyperactive children. Ss received methylphenidate before 2 experimental sessions and a placebo before 2 control sessions. The stimulant did not improve free-report performance significantly; rather it facilitated or impaired performance, depending on how it affected the order in which stimuli were reported. Similarly, medication had no effect on overall selective-listening performance, but it increased the difficulty of switching attention from one ear to the other. Results demonstrate that stimulants may act to maintain selective attention and to inhibit channel switching. Listening asymmetry, that is, right-ear superiority, was influenced by task variables but not by stimulant medication. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Natural social behaviors in hyperactive children: Dose effects of methylphenidate.

The effects of methylphenidate on the social behaviors of hyperactive children between the ages of 6 and 11 were examined during relatively unstructured activities in outdoor settings. The 12 younger (mean age?=?7–8 years) and 12 older (mean age ?=?9–21 years) children received placebo, a low (0.3 mg/kg), and a moderate (0.6 mg/kg) dose of methylphenidate. During recess, lunch, and exercise sessions, trained observers coded the children's actions as either appropriate social, negative social, or nonsocial behavior. Both age groups showed decrements in negative social behaviors when placebo was compared with the low dose of methylphenidate. Only the younger group showed incremental improvement between the low and moderate doses. There were no significant age or dosage effects on the rates of nonsocial behaviors, which remained low throughout the study. Several implications for the treatment of hyperactive children are discussed, including (a) the finding that disruptive behaviors can be reduced successfully without decreasing overall sociability, (b) the importance of interpersonal heterogeneity and the distinction between group and individual patterns of response, and (c) the need to study relationships and friendships as well as social actions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instructional desensitization: A semantic behavior treatment of anxiety disorder.

Explored the efficacy of instructional desensitization (ID) in the treatment of public speaking anxiety, using 30 speech-anxious undergraduates as Ss. Three self-report measures of confidence, affect, and anxiousness were completed by Ss, and 20 behavioral manifestations of anxiety were observed during Ss' delivery of a 4-min speech. Ss were randomly assigned to ID, placebo, or waiting list groups. Ss in the placebo group were led to believe that they were receiving a new form of therapy. Results show that ID Ss showed a significant decrement in their anxiety reactions as measured by objective and subjective anxiety measures. A significant anxiety decrement was also found in placebo Ss. However, self-report gains were not verified by objective observations. It is concluded that ID is a new semantic behavior therapy intervention that may have beneficial effects in the treatment of a broad variety of anxiety disorders. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-regulation and external reinforcement in problem-solving strategies of black adolescents

Examined the relationships among self-regulatory behaviors, perceptions of social reinforcement from significant persons, and the problem-solving performance of black adolescents (N = 33). The components of self-regulatory processes--self-reinforcement, self-evaluation and self-monitoring--were interrelated highly. Ss' perception of neither positive nor negative social reinforcement was related significantly to problem-solving performance. Discussion centered around the effects of self-responsibility and affective factors in the achievement orientation of minority children.     

Effects of modeling on behavior related to hyperactivity.

In an examination of social modeling, differences between hyperactive and nonhyperactive 6–10 yr old boys in their play and responses to models were assessed. Both groups of 16 Ss were observed before viewing any models and then after having seen a "slow," nonhyperactivelike model and a "fast," hyperactivelike model. Judges' observations of various objective and subjective measures were used to assess differences between groups as well as the effects of models on Ss' activities. Hyperactive Ss were found to behave differently during play even before viewing any model. In addition, they generally responded more to the guidelines suggested by the model, especially the fast one, than did the nonhyperactive Ss. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of methylphenidate and expectancy on performance, self-evaluations, persistence, and attributions on a social task in boys with ADHD.

This study examined the effects of 0.3 mg/kg methylphenidate (MPH) and expectancy regarding medication on the performance and persistence of 137 boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a get-acquainted dyadic interaction with a peer, using a balanced-placebo design. Boys in 4 groups—administered placebo or MPH crossed with being told they received placebo or MPH—interacted with child confederates in experimental situations in which social success and failure were manipulated. In contrast with studies of academic persistence, MPH did not affect boys' task persistence or performance. Boys gave more positive self-evaluations and talked more in the success condition as compared with the failure condition. Boys attributed success to effort and ability and failure to task difficulty, and neither MPH nor expectancy affected this pattern. These findings are consistent with other studies in failing to find debilitating effects of MPH or medication expectancies on ADHD boys' attributions or self-evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The reliability, validity, and unique contributions of self-report by adolescents receiving treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Participants were 36 adolescents diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who completed a summer treatment program. Self-report measures included the IOWA Conners Inattention/Overactivity and Oppositional/Defiant subscales, peer and staff interaction ratings, and a daily guess if the placebo or methylphenidate was given during a double-blind medication trial. Self-reports were reliable, and some of the self-report measures distinguished between placebo and methylphenidate conditions. However, the self-report measures exhibited weak correlations with observed frequencies of negative behavior and did not make a unique contribution beyond what was reported by adults. This study replicates previous findings that adolescents may be poor sources of information about ADHD symptoms, but adolescents receiving treatment for ADHD may be able to provide valid self-reports about negative social behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When a scale measures more than its name denotes: the case of the Test Anxiety Scale for Children

Administered a revision of the Test Anxiety Scale for Children (TASC) on which there were separate comparative Self-Evaluation and Anxiety scales to 133 females and 131 males in Form 1 (equivalent to Grade 6). Ss also responded to self-report measures (self-concept of attainment, causal attribution, independent reading, and friendship choices), and teachers rated Ss on their classroom behavior. Findings indicate that correlations between Ss' TASC scores and variables that had been found to be related to the original scale and assumed to be affected by anxiety were generally higher for the Self-Evaluation scale than the Anxiety scales. It is suggested that many results with the TASC may be better interpreted in terms of self-evaluation than anxiety effects. Results with measures of causal attributions suggest that self-evaluation measures are more effective predictors of achievement behavior than anxiety measures because anxiety is but one of a number of possible consequences of poor self-evaluation that could mediate relatively unproductive achievement behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Job offer acceptance behavior and reinforcement.

Investigated the effects of a positive reinforcement program on a hypothesized indicator of dissonance (college seniors rescinding a job offer acceptance after previously accepting) in 2 companies. 196 Ss were provided reinforcement from the firm they decided to join, while another 196 Ss received no reinforcement. Ss receiving reinforcement rescinded job offers at a significantly lower rate than Ss not receiving reinforcement. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative effectiveness of instructions, agreements, and reinforcement in behavioral contracts with alcoholics.

Evaluated the effects of the components of behavioral contracting on drinking in 40 chronic alcoholics. Ss were divided into 4 groups matched on age, education, length of problem drinking, and initial operant drinking responses. They were then exposed to 1 of the following conditions: (a) verbal instructions to limit alcohol consumption, (b) signed written agreement to limit consumption, (c) verbal instructions plus reinforcement for compliance, and (d) signed agreement plus reinforcement. Pre- and postoperant analog drinking sessions, in which leverpressing was reinforced with alcohol on a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule, served to assess effects of the experimental conditions. Results indicate that while instructions and signed agreements had limited influence on drinking, both groups receiving reinforcement for compliance significantly decreased their operant drinking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Functional assessment of problem behavior: A pilot investigation on the comparative and interactive effects of teacher and peer social attention on students in general education settings.

Examined the combined and interactive effects of manipulating teacher and peer attention on the occurrence of problem/inappropriate behavior in general education settings, using 3 non-disabled boys (aged 7–9 yrs). Ss' behaviors were defined as on- or off-task based on the nature of classroom activity or lession, and functional analyses were developed to assess the effects of independent vs small group task, peer attention, and teacher attention on Ss. A strong influence of peer and teacher attention on Ss' problem behavior was found. When peer attention for off-task behavior was high, all Ss engaged in off-task behavior. When teacher attention increased and peer attention was on off-task behavior, Ss increased on-task activity. Results support the use of functional assessment procedures with non-developmentally delayed Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental enhancement of prosocial television content: Effects on interpersonal behavior, imaginative play, and self-regulation in a natural setting.

Investigated whether (a) prosocial TV can affect the behavior of urban poor children and (b) environmental supports that stimulate rehearsal and labeling of TV content are effective in a field setting. The social, imaginative, and self-regulatory behavior of 141 children aged 2 yrs 4 mo–5 yrs 4 mo in Head Start centers was observed before and during 1 of the following 4 experimental treatments: (a) neutral films, (b) prosocial TV only, (c) prosocial TV plus related play materials, and (d) prosocial TV plus related materials plus teacher training for rehearsal using verbal labeling and role playing. Ss in each condition saw 20 films in 8 wks. Prosocial TV alone produced few behavioral differencs from the control group. When classrooms were otherwise comparable, Ss receiving TV plus related materials had high levels of positive social interaction with peers and adults, of imaginative play, and of assertiveness and aggression. Those whose teachers were trained as well showed high levels of positive social interaction with peers, imaginative play, and assertiveness, but did not increase in aggression. Self-regulatory behavior was unaffected. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of a say-then-do training sequence on children's social behavior.

A say-then-do training sequence was used to teach 3 behaviorally impaired 4–5 yr olds to give and take objects appropriately in a classroom. During Training Phase 1, Ss were taught to self-instruct appropriate behavior before relinquishing or receiving objects from adults and peers in a treatment setting. During Training Phase 2, adult supervision was faded from the treatment, and Ss were required to continue to self-instruct while playing with their peers. Data were collected on appropriate social behavior of Ss in both treatment and extratreatment settings. Results show that the procedures were effective for each S. Ss rapidly acquired the target behavior and were successful in generalizing and maintaining the behavior in an extratreatment setting. Results are discussed as they relate to Ss' initial acquisition of the target behavior, generalization of the target behavior to an extratreatment setting, maintenance of the behavior over time, and the applicability of the training procedures. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)