Preparation and composition of chhana whey powders using membrane processing techniques

Chhana is a traditional Indian product used widely in the confectionery industry. It is produced from cow's milk by a combination of heat and acid coagulation. Chhana whey contains about 6% milk solids yet the vast majority is wasted which leads to pollution problems. This study describes the chemical composition and various options for utilisation of chhana whey using membrane processes. Chhana whey powder containing 956 g kg^?1 total solids, 750 g kg^?1 lactose, 21 g kg^?1 protein. 60 g kg^?1 fat, 65 g kg^?1 ash was produced following concentration of chhana whey by reverse osmosis. Chhana whey protein concentrate powders containing 270, 350, 400 and 580 g kg^?1 protein were produced following ultrafiltration or diafiltration of chhana whey.     

Viscoelastic properties of caseinmacropeptide isolated from cow,ewe and goat cheese whey

Caseinmacropeptide (CMP) is a C‐terminal glycopeptide released from κ‐casein by the action of chymosin during cheese‐making. It is recognised as a bioactive peptide and is thought to be an ingredient with a potential use in functional foods. CMP occurs in sweet cheese whey and whey protein concentrate (WPC). Its composition is variable and depends on the particular whey source and the fractionation technology employed in the isolation. There were no significant (P < 0.05) differences in the relative apparent viscosities between species of CMPs (cow, ewe and goat). Analyses at different pH (2, 4, 7, 10), ionic strength (0, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.7 as NaCl molarity) and protein concentration (50, 100 and 200 g kg^?1) at temperatures from 10 to 90 °C carried out found pH 7 and high protein concentration (200 g kg^?1) conditions to be the best for CMP solutions to keep low and constant relative viscosity values with increasing temperature up to 75 °C. The viscoelastic properties–storage modulus, loss modulus and phase angle–of the different CMPs and WPC solutions were determined. Heat‐induced rheological changes in CMP solutions occurred at moderate temperatures (40–50 °C) with no appreciable differences in viscosity. Gelation took place significantly (P < 0.05) earlier in goat CMP (41 °C), followed by cow CMP (44 °C), ewe CMP (47 °C) and WPC (56 °C). Heating at 90 °C showed that WPC required significantly (P < 0.05) longer times to form gels (>5 min) than the CMPs (<5 min). WPC gels had higher (>20°) phase angle than CMP (<20°), which could be associated with untidy structures, limiting elastic properties of the gel. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of different time intervals on the viscosity of batter and on the sensory qualities of puras (pancakes) prepared using chhana and paneer whey

The viscosity of pura (pancakes) batter samples prepared with bovine, buffalo and mixed wheys (80 : 20 whey to water) was measured at different time intervals at a temperature of 25  ±  2°C using a Brookfield viscometer (LVT 98534). The viscosity of sweet pura batter samples increased after 1 h, remained constant for another 2 h and then decreased, whereas the viscosity of salty pura batter samples increased from freshly prepared batter to 1 h and then remained constant. Sensory evaluation of both sweet and salty puras at different time intervals from batter preparation was also carried out. The overall acceptability scores for sweet puras prepared using bovine milk chhana whey, buffalo milk paneer whey and mixed milk chhana whey and stored for up to 4 h at 25  ±  2°C and for 24 h at 4–5°C were not significantly different, and the same conclusion applied to salty puras made from bovine milk chhana whey. It was concluded that sweet and salty pura batters can be prepared from any chhana or paneer whey.     

The Influence of Bleaching Agent and Temperature on Bleaching Efficacy and Volatile Components of Fluid Whey and Whey Retentate

Fluid whey or retentate are often bleached to remove residual annatto Cheddar cheese colorant, and this process causes off‐flavors in dried whey proteins. This study determined the impact of temperature and bleaching agent on bleaching efficacy and volatile components in fluid whey and fluid whey retentate. Freshly manufactured liquid whey (6.7% solids) or concentrated whey protein (retentate) (12% solids, 80% protein) were bleached using benzoyl peroxide (BP) at 100 mg/kg (w/w) or hydrogen peroxide (HP) at 250 mg/kg (w/w) at 5 °C for 16 h or 50 °CC for 1 h. Unbleached controls were subjected to a similar temperature profile. The experiment was replicated three times. Annatto destruction (bleaching efficacy) among treatments was compared, and volatile compounds were extracted and separated using solid phase microextraction gas chromatography mass spectrometry (SPME GC‐MS). Bleaching efficacy of BP was higher than HP (P < 0.05) for fluid whey at both 5 and 50 °C. HP bleaching efficacy was increased in retentate compared to liquid whey (P < 0.05). In whey retentate, there was no difference between bleaching with HP or BP at 50 or 5 °C (P > 0.05). Retentate bleached with HP at either temperature had higher relative abundances of pentanal, hexanal, heptanal, and octanal than BP bleached retentate (P < 0.05). Liquid wheys generally had lower concentrations of selected volatiles compared to retentates. These results suggest that the highest bleaching efficacy (within the parameters evaluated) in liquid whey is achieved using BP at 5 or 50 °C and at 50 °C with HP or BP in whey protein retentate.     

Use of acid whey protein concentrate as an ingredient in nonfat cup set-style yogurt

Acid whey resulting from the production of soft cheeses is a disposal problem for the dairy industry. Few uses have been found for acid whey because of its high ash content, low pH, and high organic acid content. The objective of this study was to explore the potential of recovery of whey protein from cottage cheese acid whey for use in yogurt. Cottage cheese acid whey and Cheddar cheese whey were produced from standard cottage cheese and Cheddar cheese-making procedures, respectively. The whey was separated and pasteurized by high temperature, short time pasteurization and stored at 4°C. Food-grade ammonium hydroxide was used to neutralize the acid whey to a pH of 6.4. The whey was heated to 50°C and concentrated using ultrafiltration and diafiltration with 11 polyethersulfone cartridge membrane filters (10,000-kDa cutoff) to 25% total solids and 80% protein. Skim milk was concentrated to 6% total protein. Nonfat, unflavored set-style yogurts (6.0 ± 0.1% protein, 15 ± 1.0% solids) were made from skim milk with added acid whey protein concentrate, skim milk with added sweet whey protein concentrate, or skim milk concentrate. Yogurt mixes were standardized to lactose and fat of 6.50% and 0.10%, respectively. Yogurt was fermented at 43°C to pH 4.6 and stored at 4°C. The experiment was replicated in triplicate. Titratable acidity, pH, whey separation, color, and gel strength were measured weekly in yogurts through 8 wk. Trained panel profiling was conducted on 0, 14, 28, and 56 d. Fat-free yogurts produced with added neutralized fresh liquid acid whey protein concentrate had flavor attributes similar those with added fresh liquid sweet whey protein but had lower gel strength attributes, which translated to differences in trained panel texture attributes and lower consumer liking scores for fat-free yogurt made with added acid whey protein ingredient. Difference in pH was the main contributor to texture differences, as higher pH in acid whey protein yogurts changed gel structure formation and water-holding capacity of the yogurt gel. In a second part of the study, the yogurt mix was reformulated to address texture differences. The reformulated yogurt mix at 2% milkfat and using a lower level of sweet and acid whey ingredient performed at parity with control yogurts in consumer sensory trials. Fresh liquid acid whey protein concentrates from cottage cheese manufacture can be used as a liquid protein ingredient source for manufacture of yogurt in the same factory.     

An investigation of varying composition and processing conditions on the organoleptic properties of chhana spread

Trials were conducted to standardise the buffalo milk chhana spread by using whey and buttermilk. The milk was standardised to 4% fat and 9% milk solids‐not‐fat and chhana was prepared. The chhana was blended with different quantities of water (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%) at varying blending temperatures (65, 70, 75, 80 and 85°C) and blending times (2, 3 and 4 min). The chhana spread was prepared by using different levels of oil (0%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5%), cream containing 40% fat (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%) and salt (0%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1.0%, 1.25% and 1.5%). It was observed that chhana spread prepared by using 20% water, 80°C blending temperatures and 3 min and 0.75% salt scored maximum for body and texture, spreadability and overall acceptability. This chhana spread was further incorporated with buttermilk or whey either alone each at 20% or in combination each at 10% by substitution of water. Incorporation of buttermilk or whey significantly (P < 0.05) improved the chemical and sensory quality of chhana spread and had better texture.     

Influence of storage, heat treatment, and solids composition on the bleaching of whey with hydrogen peroxide

The residual annatto colorant in liquid whey is bleached to provide a desired neutral color in dried whey ingredients. This study evaluated the influence of starter culture, whey solids and composition, and spray drying on bleaching efficacy. Cheddar cheese whey with annatto was manufactured with starter culture or by addition of lactic acid and rennet. Pasteurized fat-separated whey was ultrafiltered (retentate) and spray dried to 34% whey protein concentrate (WPC34). Aliquots were bleached at 60 °C for 1 h (hydrogen peroxide, 250 ppm), before pasteurization, after pasteurization, after storage at 3 °C and after freezing at -20 °C. Aliquots of retentate were bleached analogously immediately and after storage at 3 or -20 °C. Freshly spray dried WPC34 was rehydrated to 9% (w/w) solids and bleached. In a final experiment, pasteurized fat-separated whey was ultrafiltered and spray dried to WPC34 and WPC80. The WPC34 and WPC80 retentates were diluted to 7 or 9% solids (w/w) and bleached at 50 °C for 1 h. Freshly spray-dried WPC34 and WPC80 were rehydrated to 9 or 12% solids and bleached. Bleaching efficacy was measured by extraction and quantification of norbixin. Each experiment was replicated 3 times. Starter culture, fat separation, or pasteurization did not impact bleaching efficacy (P > 0.05) while cold or frozen storage decreased bleaching efficacy (P < 0.05). Bleaching efficacy of 80% (w/w) protein liquid retentate was higher than liquid whey or 34% (w/w) protein liquid retentate (P < 0.05). Processing steps, particularly holding times and solids composition, influence bleaching efficacy of whey. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Optimization of whey bleaching conditions is important to reduce the negative effects of bleaching on the flavor of dried whey ingredients. This study established that liquid storage and whey composition are critical processing points that influence bleaching efficacy.     

Studies on the use of chhana and paneer whey in the preparation of puras (pancakes)

Puras (pancakes) are widely accepted traditional Indian foods. Studies were conducted on the use of chhana and paneer whey in the preparation of sweet and salty puras . Six samples of chhana and paneer whey were substituted in sweet and salty puras at different whey to water ratios (0 : 100, 20 : 80, 40 : 60, 60 : 40, 80 : 20, 100 : 0). The effects of chhana and paneer whey on sensory evaluation showed that sweet puras containing mixed milk chhana whey and salty puras containing cow's milk chhana whey scored highest with respect to appearance, body and texture, flavour and taste, and overall acceptability. In general, commercial samples scored less, which may be due to poor handling and maintenance of whey by commercial manufacturers. Whey substitutions also improved fat, total solids, protein and ash of both sweet and salty puras . It is interesting to note that none of sweet and salty pura samples was below the limits acceptable to the panellists. It can be thus concluded that chhana and paneer whey can be used successfully in the preparation of puras for value addition.     

Effect of Heating and Elevated Temperature Storage on Cheese Whey

The effect of heating and storage of sweet (pH 6.1–6.3) and acid (pH 4.75) cheese whey for up to 10 hr at 62.8°C (145°F) on pH, titratable acidity, total bacteria count and protein denaturation was investigated. Heating and elevated temperature storage reduced the total bacteria counts of both types of whey to ≤ 100 mL^?1 and stabilized their titratable acidity at 1.60–1.65%. These treatments resulted in up to 13.4% and 6.7% protein denaturation in sweet and acid whey, respectively, as measured by the pH 4.6 solubility method. SE- HPLC data confirmed that these elevated temperature treatments resulted in slight losses of major proteins.     

Functional properties of chhana whey powders

The protein solubility, emulsifying, foaming and gelation properties, and viscosity of solutions of chhana whey protein powders, produced by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis followed by drying, were studied over the pH range 2.5–9.0. Protein solubility varied from 57–100% and was greatest at low pH values. Chhana whey protein powders had similar emulsifying properties to commercial cheese whey protein powders of similar protein content, although the capacity to form gels when heated to 80°C was much lower, particularly at alkaline pH. the viscosity of solutions of the chhana whey powders was sensitive to pH, but was particularly high in the acidic range. These studies demonstrate considerable potential for the utilization of chhana whey, products in the food industry.     

The effect of coagulants on the texture of chhana (an acid and heat coagulated product made from milk)

Chhana (a heat and acid coagulated milk protein mass and an Indian equivalent to cottage cheese) can be used as a raw material for the manufacture of various types of sweets popular all over India. Texture Profile Analysis (TPA), using an Instron Universal Testing Machine, was used to determine the effect of different coagulants on the textural characteristics of chhana. Chhana was made using three different coagulants: citric acid, lactic acid and calcium lactate, at five different concentrations, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8%. Two types of dilution media, distilled water and acid whey, were used. The textural characteristics obtained when aqueous 0.5% citric acid, aqueous 0.5% lactic acid and 4–8% calcium lactate solutions, using acid whey as the solvent, gave similar TPA readings to normal chhana.     

Rheological Properties of Mozzarella Cheese Filled with Dairy, Egg, Soy Proteins, and Gelatin

The Rheological behavior of mozzarella cheese filled with various proteins (whey protein, caseinate, egg white, soy protein isolate, gelatin) incorporated was determined by uniaxial compression at 10°C and the effect of temperature (10°C?60°C) by dynamic measurement. Mozzarella cheese with whey protein, caseinate, egg white, and soy protein isolate showed significant water retention during heating. Among the proteins, soy protein isolate induced the strongest gel network structure with mozzarella cheese. All proteins altered the viscoelastic properties of mozzarella cheese.     

A machine learning proposal method to detect milk tainted with cheese whey

Cheese whey addition to milk is a type of fraud with high prevalence and severe economic effects, resulting in low yield for dairy products, nutritional reduction of milk and milk-derived products, and even some safety concerns. Nevertheless, methods to detect fraudulent addition of cheese whey to milk are expensive and time consuming, and are thus ineffective as screening methods. The Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy technique is a promising alternative to identify this type of fraud because a large number of data are generated, and useful information might be extracted to be used by machine learning models. The objective of this work was to evaluate the use of FTIR with machine learning methods, such as classification tree and multilayer perceptron neural networks to detect the addition of cheese whey to milk. A total of 520 samples of raw milk were added with cheese whey in concentrations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%; and 65 samples were used as control. The samples were stored at 7, 20, and 30°C for 0, 24, 48, 72, and 168 h, and analyzed using FTIR equipment. Complementary results of 520 samples of authentic raw milk were used. Selected components (fat, protein, casein, lactose, total solids, and solids nonfat) and freezing point (°C) were predicted using FTIR and then used as input features for the machine learning algorithms. Performance metrics included accuracy as high as 96.2% for CART (classification and regression trees) and 97.8% for multilayer perceptron neural networks, with precision, sensitivity, and specificity above 95% for both methods. The use of milk composition and freezing point predicted using FTIR, associated with machine learning techniques, was highly efficient to differentiate authentic milk from samples added with cheese whey. The results indicate that this is a potential method to be used as a high-performance screening process to detected milk adulterated with cheese whey in milk quality laboratories.     

Sensory Characteristics of Cottage Cheese Whey and Grapefruit Juice Blends and Changes During Processing

Studies were conducted to determine the sensory characteristics of pasteurized blends of cottage cheese whey and grapefruit juice (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% whey), and the effects of processing alternatives and storage at 3°C. A trained sensory panel rated six attributes (grapefruit, sweetness, sourness, astringency, cheesiness, saltiness). Cheesiness and saltiness increased, while sourness, astringency, sweetness, and grapefruit flavor decreased as the percentage of whey increased. Protein removal did not affect the sensory characteristics, but vacuum stripping reduced cheesiness and increased grapefruit flavor and sweetness. Lactose hydrolysis increased sweetness and decreased cheesiness in blends with more than 50% whey. The flavor of most blends was stable for 14 wk at 3°C.     

Fate of Aflatoxin M1 during Manufacture and Storage of Feta Cheese

ABSTRACT:  The effect of feta cheese manufacture on aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) content was studied using an enzyme immunoassay technique. Feta cheese was made from milk spiked with 1 and 2 μg AFM₁ per kilogram milk. Pasteurization at 63 °C for 30 min caused <10% destruction of AFM₁. During cheese making, the remaining AFM₁ in milk was partitioned between curd and whey with two-thirds retained in the curd and one-third going into the whey. Cheeses were then stored for 2 mo in 8%, 10%, and 12% brine solutions at 6 and 18 °C. There was a 22% to 27% reduction of AFM₁ during the first 10 d of storage, with slightly more loss as salt concentration increased and when the cheese was stored at 18 °C. Further storage caused only slight decrease in AFM₁ and after 30 d of brining there was no difference in AFM₁ content of the cheese based upon salt concentration of the brine. At 18 °C, no further losses of AFM₁ occurred after 30 d, and at 6 °C, there was continued slight decrease in AFM₁ levels until 50 d. After 60 d of brining, there was a total loss of 25% and 29% of the AFM₁ originally present for cheese brined at 6 and 18 °C, respectively. Thus, the combination of pasteurization, conversion of milk into feta cheese, and at least 50 d storage of cheese in brine caused a total loss of about 50% of the AFM₁ originally present in the raw milk.     

Farm and factory production of goat cheese whey results in distinct chemical composition

To analyze differences in fat and protein content in cheese whey (CW) manufactured in cheese-making factories and farms, goat CW samples were obtained from 60 cheese-making farms and 20 cheese factories. Gross composition of samples was analyzed by using an MIRIS device (MIRIS Inc., Uppsala, Sweden), whey protein composition was subjected to electrophoretic analysis, and fatty acid composition was analyzed via gas chromatography. Goat CW from farms contained higher dry matter content (70.6 vs. 50.8 g/L, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) and a higher fat percentage (10.5 vs. 1.2% over dry matter, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) than CW from cheese factories. Analysis of individual proteins showed that CW from farms contained higher concentrations of lactoferrin (0.4 vs. 0.2 mg/mL of CW, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) and caprine serum albumin (0.6 vs. 0.4 mg/mL of whey, farms vs. cheese factories, respectively) than CW from cheese factories. No differences were observed in the fatty acid profile. The main fatty acids present in goat CW were C16:0, C18:1, C14:0, and C18:0. Thus, the origin of CW affects gross composition and the protein profile, but not the fatty acid profile.     

Disulfide-mediated Polymerization Reactions and Physical Properties of Heated WPI-stabilized Emulsions

Heating a 19 wt% corn oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by 1 wt% whey protein isolate from 30 to 70°C and then cooling to 25°C for at least 15 hr, brought about minimal changes in droplet aggregation, apparent viscosity and susceptibility to creaming. At 75°C, droplet aggregation occurred but this decreased on heating to 90°C. The apparent viscosity and susceptibility of droplets to creaming increased as the degree of droplet aggregation increased. Inclusion of the sulfhydryl blocking agent N-ethylmaleimide to inhibit thiol/disulfide interchange reactions did not affect droplet aggregation but resulted in higher apparent viscosity values and susceptibility to creaming at 85 and 90°C and not at lower temperatures. The results suggest that droplet aggregation results from noncovalent interactions between unfolded protein molecules adsorbed on different droplets and that the interactions are strengthened by disulfide bonds.     

Freezing Qualities of Raw Ovine Milk for Further Processing

Raw whole ovine (sheep) milk was frozen at −15°C and −27°C and microbiological and physico-chemical properties were evaluated periodically. Total bacteria decreased at a faster rate in milk stored at −15 than at −27°C. Acid degree values for milk stored at −15°C were significantly higher than that stored at _27°C. Samples stored at −15°C exhibited protein destabilization after 6 mo of storage, while those stored at −27°C were stable throughout the 12-mo storage period.Frozen ovine milk was evaluated in several products including cheese, yogurt, and whey protein concentrates. Products produced from milk frozen at −27°C exhibited good sensory and functional characteristics. Ovine whey showed a higher proportion of β-lactoglobulin, about the same proportion of α-lactalbumin and lower proportions of serum albumin and immunoglobulin than bovine whey. Ovine whey protein concentrate showed significantly better foam overrun, foam stability, and gel strength than bovine or caprine whey protein concentrates.     

Determination of the efficiency of removal of whey protein from sweet whey with ceramic microfiltration membranes

Our research objective was to measure percent removal of whey protein from separated sweet whey using 0.1-µm uniform transmembrane pressure ceramic microfiltration (MF) membranes in a sequential batch 3-stage, 3× process at 50°C. Cheddar cheese whey was centrifugally separated to remove fat at 72°C and pasteurized (72°C for 15 s), cooled to 4°C, and held overnight. Separated whey (375 kg) was heated to 50°C with a plate heat exchanger and microfiltered using a pilot-scale ceramic 0.1-µm uniform transmembrane pressure MF system in bleed-and-feed mode at 50°C in a sequential batch 3-stage (2 diafiltration stages) process to produce a 3× MF retentate and MF permeate. Feed, retentate, and permeate samples were analyzed for total nitrogen, noncasein nitrogen, and nonprotein nitrogen using the Kjeldahl method. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-PAGE analysis was also performed on the whey feeds, retentates, and permeates from each stage. A flux of 54 kg/m² per hour was achieved with 0.1-µm ceramic uniform transmembrane pressure microfiltration membranes at 50°C. About 85% of the total nitrogen in the whey feed passed though the membrane into the permeate. No passage of lactoferrin from the sweet whey feed of the MF into the MF permeate was detected. There was some passage of IgG, bovine serum albumen, glycomacropeptide, and casein proteolysis products into the permeate. β-Lactoglobulin was in higher concentration in the retentate than the permeate, indicating that it was partially blocked from passage through the ceramic MF membrane.