Demand for gasoline and diesel fuel by farmers in the USA

This study endeavours to determine whether farmers in the USA adjust their consumption of gasoline and diesel fuel in response to changes in the relative prices of different types of energy. A demand model is specified and estimated. The conclusions suggest that the price of gasoline (diesel fuel) is a factor impacting the quantity of gasoline (diesel fuel) demanded by farmers, but there is no indication that other types of energy are substitutes for gasoline (diesel fuel). Additionally, the level of farming activity is a very important factor driving the demand for gasoline (diesel fuel). Finally, the estimated models of gasoline and diesel fuel demand are structurally stable over the period 1971–1988.     

Evidence of asymmetric behavioral responses to changes in gasoline prices and taxes for different fuel types

Using monthly data from the Spanish gasoline retail market we explore asymmetries in consumers’ behavioral responses to changes in gasoline prices and taxes. In particular, we are interested in investigating whether an increase in gasoline taxes has a more negative impact on the demand than a –similar in magnitude– increase in the “pre-tax” price of gasoline for different fuel types. We estimate fuel consumers’ responses using a rich set of robust panel data models considering potential dynamic effects and endogeneity problems. We find evidence to confirm the existence of asymmetric responses for the demand of unleaded fuels and agricultural diesel fuel. However we cannot support this statement for the regular diesel case: for this fuel both the tax-exclusive price and the tax elasticities are roughly the same. This result agrees with the fact that “diesel drivers” tend to be better informed about changes in both fuel prices and taxes. Some implications in terms of fiscal policy and pollution and climate change policy are also discussed.     

Can sunflower provide biofuel for inland demand? An integrated assessment of sustainability at regional scale

Biofuels could reduce reliance on fossil oil, while helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promoting rural development. This study assessed the viability of using local biodiesel production from sunflower in Tuscany (Italy) to meet inland demand for diesel fuel in compliance with the European Directives. A crop growth model, GIS and geostatistics were used to identify suitable areas for biodiesel production, considering potential sunflower yields alongside essential sustainability criteria: energy efficiency and greenhouse gas (GHG) savings throughout the supply chain. Simulation results indicate that biodiesel potential, estimated at 95,000 t/year, corresponds to 104,400 tCO₂ eq/year of GHG saved and to 26,500 TOE/year of fossil energy saved. Two scenarios of biodiesel requirement, derived from EU targets, were evaluated. The results of the evaluation indicated that the 2010 target of replacing 5.75% of transportation diesel fuel can be met, while the 2020 target (reaching a 10% of replacement) cannot be met, since local biodiesel production could replace only 4.78% of diesel fuel requirement. A third scenario considered replacing diesel fuel currently used in the agricultural sector. Results showed that the fuel requirement of this sector cannot be fulfilled since biodiesel could cover only approximately 36% of the expected demand.     

世界汽柴油标准及供需发展趋势浅析

清洁燃料的发展,尤其是北美、西欧以及日韩等部分亚太地区国家的清洁燃料发展已经非常成熟,无论从标准的制定及实施、技术的开发及应用、国家政策的激励等等方面,都积累了相当的经验,为发展中国家清洁燃料的发展奠定了基础。尽管目前全球汽柴油质量存在差异,但世界汽柴油需求仍处于稳步增长态势,尤其是全球清洁汽柴油需求的比例在逐年提高。主要从全球汽柴油标准、质量以及供需现状等进行调研,分析未来20年世界各地区汽柴油的变化趋势以及需求走向,指出全球汽油、柴油标准虽然因各国汽柴油生产装置结构不同、加工原油种类不同以及受气候等诸多因素影响,各国汽柴油标准中的各种限值有所不同,但是硫含量逐渐降低并趋于无硫化将是大势所趋;指出欧美等国受燃油经济性标准不断提高等多种因素影响,在2030年前的汽油需求将呈现下降,柴油需求将略有增长,而亚太、中东等发展中国家则将处于稳步增长趋势。     

The delivery of low-cost,low-carbon rural energy services

The provision of both electrical and mechanical energy services can play a critical role in poverty alleviation for the almost two billion rural users who currently lack access to electricity. Distributed generation using diesel generators remains a common means of electricity provision for rural communities throughout the world. Due to rising fuel costs, the need to address poverty, and consequences of global warming, it is necessary to develop cost efficient means of reducing fossil fuel consumption in isolated diesel microgrids. Based on a case study in Nicaragua, a set of demand and supply side measures are ordered by their annualized costs in order to approximate an energy supply curve. The curve highlights significant opportunities for reducing the costs of delivering energy services while also transitioning to a carbon-free electrical system. In particular, the study demonstrates the significant cost savings resulting from the implementation of conventional metering, efficient residential lighting, and electricity generation using renewable energy sources.     

The demand for transport fuels in Turkey

In this paper, we estimate the demand for transport fuels in Turkey. Specifically, using four different models, namely a partial adjustment model, a distributed lag model, an autoregressive distributed lag model, and an error correction model, we estimate gasoline and diesel demand functions with quarterly data covering the period 2003:Q1–2014:Q3. We find a stable long-run relationship only for diesel demand, income and price. Our results imply that gasoline demand does not respond to income and price in the long run, reflecting a shift from gasoline towards diesel induced by differential tax policies. Furthermore, we find that transport fuel demand is price inelastic, making tax on fuel a perfect tool for raising budget revenues. In addition, our results suggest that fuel demand responds to negative and positive price changes symmetrically.     

磁致伸缩技术在内燃机车燃油液位传感器上的应用

通过介绍磁致伸缩液位传感器的工作原理、在内燃机车燃油箱上的安装以及对测量数据的处理方法，将磁致伸缩技术应用于内燃机车燃油高度的测量上，为研制机车燃油消耗分析系统奠定了基础。     

机械泵供油的双燃料发动机控制策略开发

介绍了一种基于原机循环油量的柴油机-天然气发动机调节原则,根据此燃料调节原则可以确定引燃柴油和天然气的控制策略:首先将加速踏板位置按照原机油泵油量解释为总油量需求;然后按替代率确定出与总油量需求等热值的两种燃料的量;最后根据标定的数据得到目标油门位置和天然气喷射脉宽。在Matlab/Simulink环境下配置硬件资源,编写带有信号输入/输出、控制参数计算、工作模式确定与切换等完整可靠功能的控制程序,生成可执行文件并下载到MotoTron硬件内,然后在一台潍柴机械泵柴油机改装的双燃料发动机上对控制程序中的MAP进行了标定。最终的验证试验结果表明:按上述循环油量调节方法开发出的双燃料发动机工作稳定,能够实现准确快速的控制;其动力性与原机水平一致,虽然有效效率普遍低于原机,但得益于天然气的低价,其具有诱人的成本优势。     

The demand for energy for irrigation in the USA

There seems to be some question concerning the relationship between irrigation and the price of energy. Did changes in the price of energy actually impact irrigation in the USA? Additionally, the substitution between alternative types of energy seems to be a possibility for irrigation. Whether in fact it occurred is another matter. In this study, an appropriate model is developed and estimated to address the issues. The specific energy types considered include motor gasoline, diesel fuel, liquefied petroleum gas, natural gas and electrical energy. The results for 1978 and for 1980 clearly indicate that energy use for irrigation is responsive to the price of energy. Additionally, some substitution between energy types took place during this period. Finally, when the question of the stability of the demand for the various energy types is addressed, the suggestion is that the demand for the energy types considered was stable for the 1978 and 1980 periods.     

轮乘制的内燃机车油耗管理

针对当前轮乘制下机车乘务员没有节油积极性的现状,分析了机车油耗的因素,提出了机车油耗检测分析管理系统具体设计思路及难点的解决具体使用效果及经济效益评价。     

An empirical analysis of energy demand in Namibia

Using a unique database of end-user local energy data and the recently developed Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach to cointegration, we estimate the long-run elasticities of the Namibian energy demand function at both aggregated level and by type of energy (electricity, petrol and diesel) for the period 1980–2002. Our main results show that energy consumption responds positively to changes in GDP and negatively to changes in energy price and air temperature. The differences in price elasticities across fuels uncovered by this study have significant implications for energy taxation by Namibian policy makers. We do not find any significant cross-price elasticities between different fuel types.     

柴油车排气污染和柴油品质的发展趋势

本文从汽车排气规范严格的由来、世界柴油需求和质量等几方面来评述汽车排放领域内的技术进步，并就我国柴油质量问题提出改进建议。     

Policies to reduce energy use and environmental emissions in the transport sector : A case of Delhi city

This paper aims to analyze factors influencing energy consumption pattern and emission levels in the transport sector of Delhi, and extrapolates total energy demand and the vehicular emissions, using a computer-based software called ‘Long Range Energy Alternative Planning’ (LEAP) and the associated ‘Environmental Database (EDB)’. The study is restricted to passenger modes of transport in Delhi and does not include the freight model. Travel demand is first estimated by analyzing data on vehicle population, average distance travelled, and occupancy level. Next, data on travel demand, proportion of travel demand catered by road and rail, modal split, occupancy and fuel efficiency are compiled within the LEAP framework, in order to estimate the energy demand in Delhi. In addition, emission factors are compiled under EDB module of the LEAP structure to estimate the resultant pollution loading. The LEAP model is run under five alternative scenarios to estimate the current consumption of gasoline and diesel oil in Delhi and forecast the same for the years 1994/1995, 2000/2001, 2004/2005 and 2009/2010, respectively. Under each scenario, the model also estimates emissions of CO, HC, NO_x, SO₂, Pb and TSP. The total emissions are translated into concentration levels attributable to the passenger transport to get an indication of air quality in Delhi. This is accomplished by the use of proportional air quality model. Finally, scenario results are analyzed to study the impact of different urban transport policy initiatives that will reduce the growth of fuel demand and emissions. The prime objective is to arrive at an optimal transport policy that limits the future growth of fuel consumption as well as air pollution.     

Biomass energy from wood chips: Diesel fuel dependence?

Most renewable energy sources depend to some extent on use of other, non-renewable sources. In this study we explore use of diesel fuel in producing and transporting woody biomass in the state of New Hampshire, USA. We use two methods to estimate the diesel fuel used in woody biomass production: 1) a calculation based on case studies of diesel consumption in different parts of the wood chip supply chain, and 2) to support extrapolating those results to a regional system, an econometric study of the variation of wood-chip prices with respect to diesel fuel prices. The econometric study relies on an assumption of fixed demand, then assesses variables impacting supply, with a focus on how the price of diesel fuel affects price of biomass supplied. The two methods yield similar results. The econometric study, representing overall regional practices, suggests that a $1.00 per liter increase in diesel fuel price is associated with a $5.59 per Mg increase in the price of wood chips. On an energy basis, the diesel fuel used directly in wood chip production and transportation appears to account for less than 2% of the potential energy in the wood chips. Thus, the dependence of woody biomass energy production on diesel fuel does not appear to be extreme.     

Off-grid solar powered charging station for electric and hydrogen vehicles including fuel cell and hydrogen storage

This paper designs an off-grid charging station for electric and hydrogen vehicles. Both the electric and hydrogen vehicles are charged at the same time. They appear as two electrical and hydrogen load demand on the charging station and the charging station is powered by solar panels. The output power of solar system is separated into two parts. On part of solar power is used to supply the electrical load demand (to charge the electric vehicles) and rest runs water electrolyzer and it will be converted to the hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored and it supplies the hydrogen load demand (to charge the hydrogen-burning vehicles). The uncertainty of parameters (solar energy, consumed power by electrical vehicles, and consumed power by hydrogen vehicles) is included and modeled. The fuel cell is added to the charging station to deal with such uncertainty. The fuel cell runs on hydrogen and produces electrical energy to supply electrical loading under uncertainties. The diesel generator is also added to the charging station as a supplementary generation. The problem is modeled as stochastic optimization programming and minimizes the investment and operational costs of solar and diesel systems. The introduced planning finds optimal rated powers of solar system and diesel generator, operation pattern for diesel generator and fuel cell, and the stored hydrogen. The results confirm that the cost of changing station is covered by investment cost of solar system (95%), operational cost of diesel generator (4.5%), and investment cost of diesel generator (0.5%). The fuel cell and diesel generator supply the load demand when the solar energy is zero. About 97% of solar energy will be converted to hydrogen and stored. The optimal operation of diesel generator reduces the cost approximately 15%.     

The cost of fuel economy in the Indian passenger vehicle market

To investigate how fuel economy is valued in the Indian car market, we compute the cost to Indian consumers of purchasing a more fuel-efficient vehicle and compare it to the benefit of lower fuel costs over the life of the vehicle. We estimate hedonic price functions for four market segments (petrol hatchbacks, diesel hatchbacks, petrol sedans, and diesel sedans) to compute 95% confidence intervals for the marginal cost to the consumer for an increase in fuel economy. We find that the associated present value of fuel savings falls within the 95% confidence interval for most specifications, in all market segments, for the years 2002 through 2006. Thus, we fail to consistently reject the hypothesis that consumers appropriately value fuel economy.     

柴油机燃用生物柴油表面辐射噪声测试与研究

采用表面声压级测量法,对发动机分别燃用生物柴油和纯柴油的表面辐射噪声进行了试验研究,结果表明：发动机燃用生物柴油的表面辐射噪声明显低于燃用纯柴油,两者表面辐射噪声频谱变化较小,燃用柴油在1000～1600Hz范围的噪声级略大于生物柴油。     

A review of hydrogen usage in internal combustion engines (gasoline-Lpg-diesel) from combustion performance aspect

Demand for fossil fuels is increasing day by day with the increase in industrialization and energy demand in the world. For this reason, many countries are looking for alternative energy sources against this increasing energy demand. Hydrogen is an alternative fuel with high efficiency and superior properties. The development of hydrogen-powered vehicles in the transport sector is expected to reduce fuel consumption and air pollution from exhaust emissions. In this study, the use of hydrogen as a fuel in vehicles and the current experimental studies in the literature are examined and the results of using hydrogen as an additional fuel are investigated. The effects of hydrogen usage on engine performance and exhaust emissions as an additional fuel to internal combustion gasoline, diesel and LPG engines are explained. Depending on the amount of hydrogen added to the fuel system, the engine power and torque are increased at most on petrol engines, while they are decreased on LPG and diesel engines. In terms of chemical products, the emissions of harmful exhaust gases in gasoline and LPG engines are reduced, while some diesel engines increase nitrogen oxide levels. In addition, it is understood that there will be a positive effect on the environment, due to hydrogen usage in all engine types.     

我国汽柴油消费现状及中长期预测

中国自1990年以来,特别是2001年底加入WTO后,2002~2012年的10年间,汽柴油消费呈现出快速增长态势。其中,柴油消费量以年均8.30%的速度增长,2012年达到17024×104t;汽油消费量以年均8.76%的速度增长,2012年达到8684×104t;消费柴汽比2005年达到最高点2.26,2012年回落至1.96。国民经济综合因素主导着汽柴油消费;而"交通运输、仓储和邮政业"是影响汽柴油消费量变化最大的行业,占到7个汽柴油消费行业消费总量的50%以上,直接决定了汽柴油消费总量的走势;私人汽车保有量的快速增长使"生活消费"领域的汽柴油消费量增速最快;其他5个行业累计消费量变化不大。以1990~2012年汽柴油消费量为基础样本,结合经济和相关行业发展情况,选取影响各行业汽柴油消费的关联参数,选用统计回归和因子分析法对未来汽柴油消费走势进行预测。预计2015年、2020年和2030年我国柴油消费总量分别为2.04×108t、2.21×108t和2.37×108t左右,汽油消费总量分别为1.11×108t、1.32×108t和2.15×108t左右。汽油消费量增速要高于柴油消费量,消费柴汽比将持续走低,2030年可能回落到1.0左右。柴汽比的下降,会导致原有柴油产能过剩,应根据实际情况提前做出调整。     

甲醇在柴油机上应用的技术进展

在我国石油供应缺口较大的情况下,需求结构也不尽合理,柴油消耗量大,柴汽比过高。因此,发展石油替代燃料应以替代柴油为重点目标。天津大学提出了一种甲醇/柴油组合燃烧方式,在柴油机上的试验结果表明,可以实现不到1.5kg甲醇替换1.0kg柴油,甲醇对柴油的替代率平均达到20%以上,同时可以减少微粒和NOx排放,将原发动机的排放品质提高1个等级。以甲醇替代柴油,在能源多元化、节能减排、燃料能源结构调整等方面是有利的,同时还可以提高发动机高原动力,发挥我国现有甲醇产能。我国对甲醇作为燃料在认识上存在较大误区,但长期的实践和研究结果表明,与汽油、柴油相比,甲醇的毒性与之相当;其排放物是清洁的;甲醇对生态环境更友好;使用更安全;甲醇对材料的腐蚀性完全可以得到根本解决;甲醇在燃烧时排出的温室气体少于汽油、柴油,与柴油或汽油一起燃烧更有利于减少温室气体排放。建议国家对甲醇在压燃式发动机上应用给予一定支持,开展相关的基础研究。