Flour,starch and alternative (wheatless) breadmaking quality of various cassava clones

Alternative (wheatless) cassava breads were made with cassava flour from eight different cassava (Manihot esculenta, Crantz) clones fortified with soya flour (200 g kg^?1 total flour) using margarine and egg white, or xanthan, as additives. In this study, bread specific volumes were reliably predicted from only the diastatic activity and maximum paste viscosity of the cassava flour, although further variables still need to be investigated. Flours with diastatic activities above ～ 145 mg of maltose, and indirectly low maximum paste viscosities, produced dense, pudding-like structures with completely gelatinised crumbs. The flour diastatic activity was dependent on the moisture content of the freshly harvested tuberous root; above a critical threshold moisture (～ 75 %) content the specific air intake of the loaves decreased sharply. The extent of starch gelatinisation and solubilisation did not critically affect loaf volumes but affected crumb structures.     

Development of extruded snacks using jatobá (Hymenaea stigonocarpaMart) flour and cassava starch blends

The use of the jatobá trees (Hymenaea stigonocarpa Mart) by the timber industry poses an ecological problem in Brazil. The objective of this research was to investigate the use of jatobá flour for the production of snacks by the thermoplastic extrusion of a composite flour consisting of jatobá and cassava starch. Chemical analysis showed that the jatobá fruit provides high-fibre flour (486 g kg⁻¹) with 66 g kg⁻¹ protein, and 398 and 88 g kg⁻¹ of insoluble and soluble fibre, respectively. Such flour is of potential use for the production of high-fibre snacks, allowing for the economical exploitation of the jatobá while preserving the tree. Composite flours with jatobá flour and cassava starch mixtures (150: 850, 300: 700, 450: 550), conditioned to moisture levels of 170, 200 and 230 g kg⁻¹ were processed in a Brabender single-screw extruder. The extrusion conditions were 150 rpm screw speed, 4 mm die diameter and 125, 150 and 175°C of barrel temperatures. The snacks produced were evaluated as to their sensory characteristics and response surface methodology was used to optimise the extrusion process. Response surface and contour diagrams revealed that all mixtures conditioned to 170 g kg⁻¹ moisture and extruded at 150°C produced snacks of acceptable quality, higher levels of jatobá flour leading to significant quality losses with respect to sensory characteristics. © 1998 Society of Chemical Industry.     

The effect of modified starches on the gel properties and protein conformation of Nemipterus virgatus surimi

The study investigated the effect of native cassava starch (NCS), hydroxypropylated starch, acetic acid esterification starch (AAES), acetylated distarch phosphate on gel properties and protein conformation of Nemipterus virgatus surimi. Addition of 10 g kg^?1 NCS or 20 g kg^?1 AAES could significantly promote the gel strength and textural profiles of the surimi gels (p < .05). The water holding ability and whiteness of surimi were remarkably increased when the four types of starch were added at all concentrations (p < .05). In rheological test, the lower G′ was observed in surimi samples added with starch at low temperature, suggesting starch played an inactive filler role in surimi. Along with the increase of starch additive amount, ionic bond and hydrophobic interaction first increased and then decreased, while hydrogen bond first decrease and then increased. According to Raman spectroscopy data, small content of starch promoted the heat‐induced conformational transition of surimi protein from α‐helix to β‐sheet, leading to the change in gel properties of surimi gels. Scanning electron microscopy photographs showed surimi gels added with 20 g kg^?1 starch had the finer and denser network structure. Therefore, 20 g kg^?1 AAES or 10 g kg^?1 NCS or 10 g kg^?1 HS could be proposed to a potential modifier to effectively improve the quality of surimi products.     

Effect of flaxseed and wheat flour blends on dough rheology and bread quality

The rheological and baking properties of flaxseed/wheat composite flours were studied. Flaxseed flour was used to replace 50, 100, 150 and 200 g kg^?1 of wheat flour in bread. Farinographic studies showed that water absorption, dough development time and mixing tolerance index increased as the amount of flaxseed flour increased, while dough stability decreased at 100, 150 and 200 g kg^?1 of flaxseed flour substitution. The extensographic energy of dough also decreased at 150 and 200 g kg^?1 flaxseed levels. The addition of increasing amounts of flaxseed flour caused a decrease in extensibility. Doughs containing 100, 150 and 200 g kg^?1 flaxseed flour showed resistance to extension comparable to that of control dough. The specific volume of flaxseed flour breads was similar to that of control bread. Crust L, a, b values of breads with flaxseed flour were lower than those of control bread. Breads with flaxseed flour gave lower crumb L and b values and higher a values than control bread. The sensory properties showed that an acceptable bread could be produced using flaxseed flour up to a level of 200 g kg^?1. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Sweet potato-based pasta product: optimization of ingredient levels using response surface methodology

Sweet potato flour was used for the development of a pasta product. The system known as response surface methodology was used to analyse the effect of sweet potato flour, soyflour, water, Arabic gum and carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) on quality responses (sensory, solids loss and hardness) of the pasta product. A rotatable central‐composite design was used to develop models for the responses. Responses were affected most by changes in soyflour and gum levels and to a lesser extent by sweet potato flour and water levels. Individual contour plots of the different responses were superimposed and regions meeting the maximum sensory score (33.8), minimum solids loss (16.6%) and maximum texture hardness (5616 g) were identified at 674 g kg^?1 sweet potato flour, 195 g kg^?1 water, 110 g kg^?1 soyflour, 10.6 g kg^?1 Arabic gum and 10.1 g kg^?1 CMC levels.     

Effect of rice variety,rice flour concentration and enzyme levels on composite bread quality

A study was conducted to determine the suitability of substituting portions of wheat flours with rice flours for breadmaking. The levels of substitution were 50, 100, 150 and 200 g kg^?1. Two kinds of enzymes, barley malt and fungal amylase, were added to composite flours, and their effects on the volume and quality of the rice-based bread were determined. The results showed that the enzymes, levels of replacement and the varieties of rice had significant effects on weight, specific volume and overall acceptability of the bread samples. However, the enzymes did not have significant effects on the volume, protein and fat contents or on the character and color of the crust in the sensory analysis. Comparisons were made of the nutritional and sensory qualities of the bread made entirely from wheat flour, and the sample which performed best, the bread with 50 g kg^?1 of flour from low amylose variety (183.3 g kg^?1) with barley malt, showed non-significant differences. The overall acceptability of the products showed that it is acceptable to substitute wheat flour with flours generated from rice up to the 150 g kg^?1 replacement level only.     

Use of multivariate techniques in studying the flour making properties of some CMD resistant cassava clones

High quality cassava flour (HQCF) is one of the primary products of raw cassava root that has continued to find wider food application in Nigeria. In this study, some 43 newly developed cassava mosaic disease (CMD) resistant clones of cassava were screened based on some physical (flour yield, bulk density, and tri-stimulus colour characteristics (L^∗, a^∗, b^∗, Chroma and Hue)), chemical (moisture, protein, ash, starch, amylose, sugar contents, TTA, pH, and cyanogenic potential), functional (water and oil absorption capacities, water solubility, swelling power, least gelation capacity, diastatic activity, percent damaged starch, and alkaline water retention), and pasting properties. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that all properties measured varied significantly (P < 0.001). The flours had a wider range of starch content (65–88%), amylose content (13–23%), water absorption capacity (136–224%), diastatic activity (128–354 mg maltose), peak viscosity (77–328 RVU), final viscosity (56–217 RVU), and trough (32–152). Due to the peculiarity of the experimental data generated, two protocols of applying multivariate statistical techniques were evaluated for discriminating the cassava clones. By first applying principal component analysis (PCA), followed by cluster analysis (CA) and finally, discriminant function analysis (DFA) of the experimental data, it was possible to achieve about 87% correct classification of the cassava clones. The final viscosity and diastatic activity of the flours were found to be the most important variables for classifying the cassava clones.     

Wet‐fractionation of Phaseolus lunatus seeds: partial characterization of starch and protein

The optimum extraction conditions for integral use of Phaseolus lunatus seed, in alkaline medium, are 1:6 (w/v) flour:water ratio, pH 11 and a 1 h extraction time. Three main fractions were produced under these conditions: starch; protein isolate and fibrous residue by‐product. The yield is 288.4 g kg^?1 starch, 188.2 g kg^?1 protein isolate and the remaining quantity, fibrous residue. The starch has 98.4% purity, a 75 °C gelatinization temperature and high syneresis even at high concentrations. It also has high viscosity, good stability and middle retrogradation during the heating–cooling cycle. The protein isolate contains 711.3 g kg^?1 protein as well as 75.5 g lysine kg^?1 protein, 10.1 g methionine kg^?1 protein and 12.2 g tryptophan kg^?1 protein. Its in vitro digestibility is 79% with a 2.5 c‐PER. The fibrous residue contains 63 g kg^?1 of protein, 328.4 g kg^?1 of crude fiber and 567.3 g kg^?1 of NFE. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of extrusion on nutritional quality of maize and Lima bean flour blends

Maize flour (Zea mays) (M), Lima bean flour (Phaseolus lunatus) (B) and blends of these in proportions of 75M/25B, 50M/50B and 25M/75B (w/w) were extruded and their nutritional quality evaluated. Extrusion was done with a single screw extruder at 160 °C, 100 rpm and 15.5% moisture. In vitro protein digestibility (87%) was higher in the extruded products. Available lysine and resistant starch were highest in 50M/50B raw flour (59.5 g kg⁻¹ protein, 67.9 g kg⁻¹, respectively) but decreased after extrusion (45.5 g kg⁻¹ protein, 16.6 g kg⁻¹, respectively). The same treatment had the lowest available starch (561.6 g kg⁻¹ flour, 507.9 g kg⁻¹ extrudate). Total dietary fiber in the 50M/50B raw flour blend was 144 g kg⁻¹ versus 176 g kg⁻¹ in its extrudate. This was most noticeable for soluble dietary fiber, which increased from 10.6 g kg⁻¹ to 79.4 g kg⁻¹ after processing. Extrusion of blends is feasible up to a 50% bean inclusion level, which improves the nutritional value of the expanded product.Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Quality of bread made from ozonated wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour

BACKGROUND: Ozone gas could be used as a fumigant during grain and flour storage. Experiments were conducted to determine the effects of exposure to ozone and the effects of blending ozone‐treated flour with control flour on flour functionality and bread‐making quality. RESULTS: Ozone treatment oxidized lipids, increased brightness and reduced the yellow hue of flour, and increased peak viscosity and setback viscosity of flour. Bread made from flour treated with ozone at 1500 mg kg^?1 for 4.5 min and bread made from flour blended with 100 g kg^?1 ozonated flour had good crust color and a whiter crumb and had more crumb cells, which resulted in a greater specific volume of the bread when compared with control flour. Flour functionality declined as ozone exposure increased beyond 9 min and as the concentration of ozonated flour increased beyond 200 g kg^?1. CONCLUSION: Bread made from flour exposed to ozone for 4.5 min or flour that contained 100 g kg^?1 fully ozonated flour had greater specific loaf volume and whiter crumb compared to bread made with control flour. Exposure of flour to ozone for longer times (9–45 min) and higher blends (200–1000 g kg^?1) deteriorated quality of bread. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effects of rice properties and emulsifiers on the quality of rice pasta

Two commercial rice flours (GTIndica and GTJaponica, with amylose contents of 306.8 and 185.2 g kg^?1 respectively) and their blended flours were used to make rice pasta. The effects of two emulsifiers (distilled glyceryl monostearate (GMS) and a commercial emulsifier (KM3000)) on the pasting and thermal properties of dried rice pasta were investigated using a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) and a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The rice pasta made from high‐amylose rice flour had better extrusion properties, better texture, whiter colour, less cooking loss and better eating quality than that made from low‐amylose rice flour. The maximum amount of low‐amylose rice flour that could be blended in for making an acceptable quality of rice pasta was 500 g kg^?1. A soft texture, low adhesiveness and low gumminess of cooked rice pasta were obtained by adding 10 g kg^?1 GMS. SEM investigations showed that use of an emulsifier restricted the swelling of starch granules, especially for the pasta made from high‐amylose rice flour. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Nutritional value and functional properties of a hydrocolloidal soybean and oat blend for use in Asian foods

A rheological study was conducted to determine the functional properties of a hydrocolloidal blend of soybean flour and oat bran, called Soytrim. Soytrim was prepared by thermomechanically processing soybean and oat products. After finding that Soytrim had similar rheological characteristics to coconut and soybean milk products, two studies were conducted to investigate its use in improving the nutritional value of some Asian foods by reducing the saturated fat content and increasing the soluble fibre content. In the first study, four Thai foods were prepared using a 60 g kg^?1 Soytrim suspension to replace some of the coconut milk, with subsequent sensory, chemical and physical analysis. A 750 g kg^?1 substitution of Soytrim for coconut milk in green chicken curry gave a 74.7% reduction in saturated fat content and a 142.8% increase in soluble fibre content. Total substition of Soytrim for coconut milk in fermented soybean dip gave a 96.2% reduction in saturated fat and a 10.6% increase in soluble fibre. Total substitution in mungbean conserve gave a 97.0% reduction in saturated fat and a 19.0% increase in soluble fibre. A 500 g kg^?1 substitution of soytrim for coconut milk in sweetened condensed cassava paste gave a 48.7% reduction in saturated fat and 37.5% increase in soluble fibre. Sensory evaluation of these foods revealed no distinguishable changes in acceptability at the 500 g kg^?1 replacement level, but unacceptability with total substitution. In the second study, more widely consumed Asian foods, soymilk and tofu, were combined with Soytrim. These foods could also be made more nutritious when combined with Soytrim at rates of substitution up to 300 g kg^?1, with satisfactory acceptability at this replacement level. In all the Asian foods studied, the hydrocolloidal blend of soybean flour and oat bran could add nutritional value by reducing saturated fat and increasing soluble fibre. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

Development and evaluation of products from cassava flour as new alternatives to wheaten breads

Egg white with margarine, and xanthan gum, have been used to produce alternative breads from cassava flour fortified with 200 g kg^?1 soya flour. All the additives increased the amount of air entrapped in the cassava batters at the mixing stage, as indicated by their lower batter densities. The lower the batter density the higher was the maximum gas retention volume attained in the 60 min fermentation stage. However, final loaf volume also depends on the stability of the batter; egg white primarily acts as a stabiliser. Margarine, and more significantly egg white, reduced the extent of starch gelatinisation and solubilisation in the bread. Breads made with locally available egg white and margarine are sensorily acceptable to Nigerian consumers and have very good keeping qualities.     

Effect of seed treatments on the chemical composition and properties of two amaranth species: starch and protein

The seeds of two Amaranth species were studied. The starch contents were 543 and 623 g kg^?1 while crude protein contents were 154 and 169 g kg^?1 for Amaranthus caudatus and Amaranthus cruentus seeds, respectively. The effect of several treatments, including cooking, popping and germination and flour air classification on the protein and starch properties were studied. Air classification decreased the starch content and increased the protein content, while heating increased the protein but did not affect the starch content. Germination decreased both starch and protein contents. Amylose content was increased by air classification and heating, but was not affected by germination. It was found that all treatments increased the starch swelling power and reduced the falling number. The resistant starch content was increased in the high protein flour (HPF) fraction and germinated flour compared with the raw flour, while its content decreased in the heat treated seed flours. These processes also affected the starch gelatinization temperature and peak viscosity. The thermal properties of the starch flour were not affected by air classification while gelatinization energy was decreased significantly (by 52.0 and 90.0% and by 70.0 and 95.0%) in cooked and popped A caudatus and A cruentus seed flours, respectively. The gelatinization energy was highest in germinated seeds dried at 90 °C with values of 2.67 and 3.87 J g^?1. Air classification reduced the level of all protein fractions. Thermal treatment decreased the water‐soluble fraction (albumins + globulins) and alcohol‐soluble fraction (prolamins) in both species. The levels of all fractions except the water‐soluble fraction (albumins + globulins) were reduced significantly in both species by germination, which mainly increased the amount of aspartic acid, serine and alanine, while the amounts of threonine, arginine and tyrosine decreased in both species. The polypeptide bands of the HPF in both species were unchanged compared with the raw seed flours, but more intensive coloured bands were observed. Thermal treatments eliminated major and minor bands above 35.0 KDa in both species. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Development of low-fat and low-calorie beef sausage using modified starch as fat replacement agent

BACKGROUND: The effects of modified waxy maize starch (MWMS, 10–32.5 g kg^?1) as a replacement for varying levels of oil or both oil and wheat flour (WF) on the chemical and technological characteristics of 60% beef sausages were investigated. RESULTS: Addition of MWMS increased water‐holding capacity and decreased moisture content and both cooking and purge losses. Incorporation of MWMS improved organoleptic acceptance compared with control sausages. CONCLUSION: Sausage formula 5 (F5), containing 20 g kg^?1 MWMS and 50 g kg^?1 WF, was better (P < 0.05) than all other formulae. The total caloric content of the sausages decreased significantly with decreasing fat level (P < 0.05); for example, the decrease in fat content of 57.4% in F5 led to a significant decrease in energy value of 34.9% (P < 0.05). Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Cassava leaves as animal feed: Potential and limitations

The nutrient composition and potential productivity of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) leaves are examined, and their usefulness as a protein supplement in animal nutrition in the tropics is reviewed. On average, meal prepared from cassava leaves contains (on a dry matter basis) 210 g kg^?1 crude protein, 250 g kg^?1 acid detergent fibre, 85 g kg^?1 ash, 14.5 g kg^?1 calcium and 4.5 g kg^?1 phosphorus. Cassava leaf protein is well balanced, except for a deficiency of sulphur-containing amino acids. The presence of hydrocyanic acid and tannins is considered, but a leaf meal with low levels of these anti-nutritional factors may be prepared using simple processing techniques. The most immediate prospects for the use of cassava leaf products are in the following areas: (i) low level inclusion of leaf meal in feed formulations for monogastric animals, and (ii) fresh forage as a protein supplement to low-quality roughages in ruminant feeding. Relevant future research needs are also identified.     

Factors in the protein enrichment of cassava by solid state fermentation

The enrichment of cassava protein content using solid substrate fermentation was studied on both laboratory and on-farm scales using Aspergillus niger as a starter. The effects of cassava particle size and of various nitrogen source ratios and mixing methods were investigated. Ammonium sulphate and urea as sources at respective levels of addition (g N kg⁻¹ substrate) of 10:10, 20:10 and 20:20 were used in combination with cassava alone and cassava mixed with rice bran and soya bean each having mixing levels of 50, 100 and 150 g kg⁻¹. The mixture was fermented for 84 h at 35°C and 90–95% RH on the laboratory scale and 29–31°C and 95–99% RH at the on-farm scale. The results indicated that cube sizes ranging from 0.3 to 0.5 cm³ gave good mycelial growth. Pure cassava alone at the 10:10 nitrogen addition level produced the highest protein yield of about 145 g kg⁻¹. The on-farm technique yielded higher protein enrichment compared with laboratory experiments. Cassava alone yielded 230 g kg⁻¹ protein while cassava with rice bran and cassava with soya bean each produced 210 g kg⁻¹ protein.     

Functionality Enhancement of Composite Cassava Flour in the Production of Maize Tuwo (A Non-fermented Maize-Based Food Dumpling)

The study was focused on the evaluation of textural and sensory quality enhancing functionality of cassava flour in the production of maize tuwo (a non-fermented maize-based food dumpling). The cassava flour was added to maize flour at the level of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% (w/w), respectively. The bulk density and water holding capacity of maize/cassava flour mixes ranged from 0.77–0.83 g/cm³ and 1.91–2.05 g/g, respectively, while those of 100% maize flour were 0.84 g/cm³ and 2.09 g/g, respectively. There were variations in the pasting properties of maize/cassava flour mixes including the pasting temperature (75.4–78.8°C), peak viscosity (112.1–170.0 RVU), breakdown viscosity (38.4–53.7 RVU) and final viscosity (132.1–142.2 RVU), while those of 100% maize flour were 74.6°C, 108.1 RVU, 38.1 RVU and 148.3 RVU, respectively. The colour characteristics of tuwo prepared from maize/cassava flour mixes showed an increase in the colour lightness, L*-value (68.6–71.8) and chroma, C-value (9.4–11.4) while tuwo from 100% maize flour gave 67.7 and 9.1, respectively. The cohesiveness indexes (15.4–24.2%) of tuwo from maize/cassava flour mixes increased with an increase in the quantity of cassava flour in the mix while that from 100% maize flour was 15.2%. The softness indexes (17.5–18.4°mm) of tuwo from the mixes were also higher than that from 100% maize flour (17.4°mm). The sensory quality rating of tuwo from maize/cassava flour mixes showed that tuwo from 25% cassava flour inclusion was the highest in terms of texture (hand-mouldability), taste and overall acceptability while that from 30% cassava flour inclusion was the highest in terms of colour.     

Rheology and baking potential of wheat/plantain composite flour

The possibilty of producing bread from wheat/plantain composite flour has been comprehensively assessed. The chemical analysis of the composite flour showed that it contained less protein and higher carbohydrate and minerals than wheat flour. With increasing levels of supplementation with plantain the water absorption capacity and dough development time of the composite flour decreased. However, the mixing tolerance time increased and the mixing quality decreased. It was found that the baking quality decreased with increasing level of supplementation and when unblanched plantain flour was used. The blend with 100 g kg^?1 blanched plantain and 900 g kg^?1 wheat flour was found to be internally and externally better than other blends and the bread was of acceptable quality.     

Quality of dried white salted noodles affected by microbial transglutaminase

To examine the potential application of microbial transglutaminase (MTGase) in oriental noodle making, the effects of various MTGase addition levels on the rheological, textural and structural properties of noodles were investigated using good quality (‘Red Bicycle’) and poor quality (‘Sandow’) wheat flours. Addition of MTGase at 5–20 g kg^?1 levels, but not at 1 g kg^?1 level, to the two different wheat flours decreased rapid visco‐analyser (RVA) parameters of hot paste viscosity and final viscosity while increasing breakdown. For fresh white salted noodle dough sheets, the storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) increased significantly at 1 g kg^?1 MTGase addition for both types of flour, but there was no clear trend with higher levels of MTGase. For dried white salted noodles, textural parameters (tensile force, hardness and gumminess) generally increased, cooking loss was little affected and the yield of the cooked noodle was significantly decreased by MTGase. Color was slightly adversely affected. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results indicated that physical properties of dry noodles were improved through the formation of cross‐links [ε‐(γ‐glutamyl)lysine] by MTGase. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry