A novel method for determining calibration and behavior of PVDF ultrasonic hydrophone probes in the frequency range up to 100 MHz

A new calibration technique for PVDF ultrasonic hydrophone probes is described. Current implementation of the technique allows determination of hydrophone frequency response between 2 and 100 MHz and is based on the comparison of theoretically predicted and experimentally determined pressure-time waveforms produced by a focused, circular source. The simulation model was derived from the time domain algorithm that solves the non linear KZK (Khokhlov-Zabolotskaya-Kuznetsov) equation describing acoustic wave propagation. The calibration technique data were experimentally verified using independent calibration procedures in the frequency range from 2 to 40 MHz using a combined time delay spectrometry and reciprocity approach or calibration data provided by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), UK. The results of verification indicated good agreement between the results obtained using KZK and the above-mentioned independent calibration techniques from 2 to 40 MHz, with the maximum discrepancy of 18% at 30 MHz. The frequency responses obtained using different hydrophone designs, including several membrane and needle probes, are presented, and it is shown that the technique developed provides a desirable tool for independent verification of primary calibration techniques such as those based on optical interferometry. Fundamental limitations of the presented calibration method are also examined.     

High-frequency membrane hydrophone

A membrane hydrophone with a 37-μm diameter spot poled electrode has been fabricated on a 4-μm-thick film of the piezoelectric copolymer, polyvinylidene fluoride trifluoroethylene (PVDF-TrFE), and initially characterized. The hydrophone has an effective spot size of less than 100 μm, an on-membrane +7-dB gain buffer amplifier, and a -3-dB bandwidth of 150 MHz. The acoustic properties of the hydrophone were investigated with a transducer equivalent circuit model, the electric fringe fields due to poling were characterized with a finite difference electrostatic field model, and the effective spot diameters 2a₃ and 2a₆ were estimated. Measurements on the bandwidth, effective spot size, and sensitivity are presented. This hydrophone appears suitable for the characterization of both the frequency and spatial parameters of high-frequency transducers such as intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) catheter transducers operating in the 10-40 MHz range     

Hydrophone spatial averaging corrections from 1 to 40 MHz

The purpose of this study was to develop and experimentally verify a practical spatial averaging model for frequencies up to 40 MHz. The model is applicable to focused sources of circular geometry, accounts for the effects of hydrophone probe finite aperture, and allows calibration by substitution to be performed when the active elements of reference and tested hydrophone probes differ significantly. Several broadband sources with focal numbers between 3 and 20 were used to produce ultrasound fields with frequencies up to 40 MHz. The effective diameters of the ultrasonic hydrophone probes calibrated in the focal plane of the sources ranged from 150 to 500 μm. Prior to application of the spatial averaging corrections, the hydrophones with diameters smaller than that of the reference hydrophone exhibited experimentally determined absolute sensitivities higher than the true ones. This discrepancy increased with decreasing focal numbers and increasing frequency. It was determined that the error was governed by the cross-section of the beam in the focal plane and the ratio of the effective diameters of the reference and tested hydrophone probes. In addition, the error was found to be reliant on the frequency-dependent effective hydrophone radius. After applying the spatial averaging correction, the overall uncertainty in the hydrophone calibration was on the order of ±1 dB. The model developed is being extended to be applicable to frequencies beyond 40 MHz, which are becoming increasingly important in diagnostic ultrasound imaging applications     

Pulse-echo field distribution measurement technique forhigh-frequency ultrasound sources

A simple technique for the determination of the spatial and temporal transmit-receive field distributions of spherically focused high-frequency transducers is described. Instead of a point-like target, tungsten wires (line-like targets) with diameters less than the acoustic wavelength are used as pulse-echo targets. Spatial and temporal field quantities were determined for spherically focused transducers in the frequency range from 3 to 17 MHz, and a comparison with hydrophone measurements showed that both techniques yielded comparable results for the low-frequency transducer. However, for the higher frequency transducers, hydrophone measurements did not yield satisfactory results compared to the wire-target technique due to the hydrophone's aperture size, while the results from the wire-target technique were in general agreement with theory     

Transducer for harmonic intravascular ultrasound imaging

A recent study has shown the feasibility of tissue harmonic imaging (THI) using an intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) transducer. This correspondence describes the design, fabrication, and characterization of a THI-optimized piezoelectric transducer with oval aperture of 0.75 mm by 1 mm. The transducer operated at 20 MHz and 40 MHz, and was comprised of a single piezoelectric layer with additional passive layers. The Krimholtz-Leedom-Matthaei (KLM) model was used to iteratively find optimal material properties of the different layers. The transducer characterization showed -6 dB fractional bandwidths of 30% and 25%, and two-way insertion losses of -20 dB and -36 dB, respectively.     

High frequency ultrasound imaging with optical arrays

Dynamically focused and steered high frequency ultrasound imaging systems require arrays with fine element spacing, wide bandwidths, and large apertures. However, these characteristics are difficult to achieve at frequencies greater than 30 MHz using conventional array construction methods. Optical schemes offer a solution. Focused laser beams incident on a suitable surface can generate and detect acoustic radiation. Precisely controlling the position and size of the beams defines points of transmission and detection, making it possible for pulse-echo image formation by synthetic aperture methods. An optical detection array was built, relying on a conventional piezoelectric transducer as an ultrasound source. The detection system, with near optimal resolution over a wide depth of field, demonstrates the potential for high frequency array implementation using optical techniques. A possible application is in pathology, where 2-D or 3-D fine resolution pulse-echo imaging can be performed in situ without the need for biopsies.     

Wide-band piezoelectric polymer acoustic sources

The design of a wideband acoustic source made of the piezoelectric polymer polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF) is described. The source was developed for the characterization and absolute calibration of ultrasonic hydrophone probes. Construction details are described and performance characteristics of the wideband PVDF transmitter, including its transmitting voltage response and directivity patterns, are compared with theoretical predictions in the frequency range up to 40 MHz. The Krimholtz-Leedom-Mattaei (KLM) model was used to examine the influence of the PVDF polymer film thickness, the backing acoustic impedance, the cable length, and the electrical source resistance on overall transmit transfer characteristics. A comparison is made with traditional piezoelectric ceramic acoustic sources, and it is shown that piezopolymer transmitters exhibit some improved properties and are well suited for certain ultrasound dosimetry applications. In particular, the polymer sources have been found useful in measurements based on swept-frequency excitation. Those measurements allow characterization of transmitters and receivers to be performed as a virtually continuous function of frequency.     

A nonlinear propagation model-based phase calibration technique for membrane hydrophones

A technique for the phase calibration of membrane hydrophones in the frequency range up to 80 MHz is described. This is achieved by comparing measurements and numerical simulation of a nonlinearly distorted test field. The field prediction is obtained using a finite-difference model that solves the nonlinear Khokhlov-Zabolotskaya-Kuznetsov (KZK) equation in the frequency domain. The measurements are made in the far field of a 3.5 MHz focusing circular transducer in which it is demonstrated that, for the high drive level used, spatial averaging effects due to the hydrophone's finite-receive area are negligible. The method provides a phase calibration of the hydrophone under test without the need for a device serving as a phase response reference, but it requires prior knowledge of the amplitude sensitivity at the fundamental frequency. The technique is demonstrated using a 50-microm thick bilaminar membrane hydrophone, for which the results obtained show functional agreement with predictions of a hydrophone response model. Further validation of the results is obtained by application of the response to the measurement of the high amplitude waveforms generated by a modern biomedical ultrasonic imaging system. It is demonstrated that full deconvolution of the calculated complex frequency response of a nonideal hydrophone results in physically realistic measurements of the transmitted waveforms.     

Calibration of a focusing transducer and miniature hydrophone as well as acoustic power measurement based on free-field reciprocity in a spherically focused wave field

The free-field transmitting voltage response at the pressure focus of a spherically focusing transducer was defined and calibrated based on the reciprocity theorem of a free-field spherically focused acoustic wave. The acoustic power, the radiation conductance, and the pressure at the pressure focus were derived and measured accordingly from the transmitting current response on the imaginary mirror symmetric spherical surface of the radiating surface. A miniature hydrophone was calibrated by the self-reciprocity of the spherically focusing source. Comparison results show that the measured acoustic power deviation between the reciprocity method and the radiation force balance method are within +/- 5% for two air-backed focusing transducers at 1.53 MHz and 5.27 MHz, respectively, and the maximum deviation of a hydrophone calibration between the new method and the free-field plane wave reciprocity method is within 1.4 dB in the frequency range from 1 MHz to 2 MHz in experiments.     

Characterization of a polymer film optical fiber hydrophone for use in the range 1 to 20 MHz: a comparison with PVDF needle and membrane hydrophones

A small aperture wideband ultrasonic optical fiber hydrophone is described. The transduction mechanism is based on the detection of acoustically induced changes in the optical thickness of a 25-mum thick parylene polymer film acting as a low finesse Fabry Perot (FP) interferometer that is deposited directly onto the end of a single mode optical fiber. The acoustic performance compares favorably with that of PVDF needle and membrane hydrophones with a peak noise-equivalent-pressure (without signal averaging) of 10 kPa over a 25-MHz measurement bandwidth, a wideband response to 20 MHz, and a near omnidirectional performance at 10 MHz. The dynamic range was 60 dB with an upper limit of linear detection of 11 MPa and a temporal stability of <5% over a period of 20 h. The hydrophone can also measure temperature changes with a resolution of 0.065 degrees C, offering the prospect of making simultaneous acoustic pressure and temperature measurements. The transduction parameters of the FP sensing element were measured, yielding an ultrasonic acoustic phase sensitivity of 0.075 rad/MPa and a temperature phase sensitivity of 0.077 rad/ degrees C. The ability to achieve high acoustic sensitivity with small element sizes and to repeatably fabricate rugged sensor downleads using polymer deposition techniques suggests that this type of hydrophone can provide a practical alternative to piezoelectric hydrophone technology.     

Hydrophone measurements in diagnostic ultrasound fields

Some of the methods, calculations, and problems associated with making hydrophone measurements in diagnostic ultrasound fields are considered. Several organizations have proposed definitions of various peak and average intensities that need to be specified when characterizing medical ultrasound fields. All of these can be determined from hydrophone measurements, but the bandwidths encountered (>50 MHz), along with the small focal diameters achievable ( approximately 1 mm), can place great demands on hydrophone performance. Two general types of hydrophones are available-the spot-poled membrane and needle types. Both employ the piezopolymer polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF), and for the most part they have effective dimensions in the 0.5-1.0-mm range. Hydrophones can be made with useful bandwidths extending beyond 50 MHz. However, above approximately 15 MHz the nature of the response becomes highly dependent on the method of construction and PVDF film thickness used, as well as the characteristics of any associated preamplifier circuitry. Other factors that can affect measurement accuracy are discussed.     

Membrane hydrophone phase characteristics through nonlinear acoustics measurements

This work considers the need for both the amplitude and phase to fully characterize polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane hydrophones and presents a comprehensive discussion of the nonlinear acoustic measurements utilized to extract the phase information and the experimental results taken with two widely used PVDF membrane hydrophones up to 100 MHz. A semi-empirical computer model utilized the hyperbolic propagation operator to predict the nonlinear pressure field and provide the complex frequency response of the corresponding source transducer. The PVDF hydrophone phase characteristics, which were obtained directly from the difference between the computer-modeled nonlinear field simulation and the corresponding measured harmonic frequency phase values, agree to within 10% with the phase predictions obtained from receive-transfer-function simulations based on software modeling of the membrane's physical properties. Cable loading effects and membrane hydrophone resonances were distinguished and identified through a series of impedance measurements and receive transfer function simulations on the hydrophones including their hard-wired coaxial cables. The results obtained indicate that the PVDF membrane hydrophone's phase versus frequency plot exhibits oscillations about a monotonically decreasing line. The maxima and minima inflection point slopes occur at the membrane thickness resonances and antiresonances, respectively. A cable resonance was seen at 100 MHz for the hydrophone with a 1-m cable attached, but not seen for the hydrophone with a shorter 0.65-m cable.     

Design of efficient, broadband single-element (20-80 MHz) ultrasonic transducers for medical imaging applications

This paper discusses the design, fabrication, and testing of sensitive broadband lithium niobate (LiNbO/sub 3/) single-element ultrasonic transducers in the 20-80 MHz frequency range. Transducers of varying dimensions were built for an f# range of 2.0-3.1. The desired focal depths were achieved by either casting an acoustic lens on the transducer face or press-focusing the piezoelectric into a spherical curvature. For designs that required electrical impedance matching, a low impedance transmission line coaxial cable was used. All transducers were tested in a pulse-echo arrangement, whereby the center frequency, bandwidth, insertion loss, and focal depth were measured. Several transducers were fabricated with center frequencies in the 20-80 MHz range with the measured -6 dB bandwidths and two-way insertion loss values ranging from 57 to 74% and 9.6 to 21.3 dB, respectively. Both transducer focusing techniques proved successful in producing highly sensitive, high-frequency, single-element, ultrasonic-imaging transducers. In vivo and in vitro ultrasonic backscatter microscope (UBM) images of human eyes were obtained with the 50 MHz transducers. The high sensitivity of these devices could possibly allow for an increase in depth of penetration, higher image signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and improved image contrast at high frequencies when compared to previously reported results.     

Extending the frequency range of the National Physical Laboratory primary standard laser interferometer for hydrophone calibrations to 80 MHz

A method for the primary calibration of hydrophones in the frequency range up to 60 MHz is described. The current National Physical Laboratory (NPL) primary standard method of calibrating ultrasonic hydrophones from 500 kHz to 20 MHz is based on optical interferometry. The acoustic field produced by a transducer is detected by an acoustically transparent but optically reflecting pellicle. Optical interferometric measurements of pellicle displacement at discrete frequencies in tone-burst fields are converted to acoustic pressure, and the hydrophone for calibration is substituted at the same point, allowing sensitivity in volts per pascal to be obtained directly. For calibrations up to 60 MHz, the interferometer is capable of measuring the displacement of the pellicle as a function of frequency in a harmonically rich nonlinear field up to and including the 12th harmonic of the shocked field generated by a 5 MHz focusing transducer, allowing hydrophones to be calibrated by substitution in the same field. Sources of uncertainty in the new method have been investigated. Best combined random and systematic uncertainties at the 95% confidence level for the new method are 7% at 20 MHz, 11% at 40 MHz, and 16% at 60 MHz.     

基于激光全息法的聚焦换能器近场声特性分析

研究了基于激光全息法的低频聚焦换能器近场测量方法,分析了利用激光全息法测量近声场特性时的基本原理,构建了一套实验测量系统。为验证该方法的可行性与准确性,利用激光测振仪对1个由25个压电小柱按5×5排布构成,频率为80kHz且表面带有自聚焦声透镜的聚焦换能器的声场进行实验测试和推算,获得了距离该换能器辐射凹面中心50mm处振动膜片上的声压幅度和相位分布,推算出此聚焦换能器声轴线上的声压分布与焦点处声压分布,同时使用COMSOL模型仿真与水听器测试,对比验证了激光全息近场测量后远场外推结果的高准确性。     

Conformal ultrasound imaging system for anatomical breast inspection

Ultrasound tomography has considerable potential as a means of breast cancer detection because it reduces the operator-dependency observed in echography. A half-ring transducer array was designed based on breast anatomy, to obtain reflectivity images of the ductolobular structures using tomographic reconstruction procedures. The 3-MHz transducer array comprises 1024 elements set in a 190-degree circular arc with a radius of 100 mm. The front-end electronics incorporate 32 independent parallel transmit/receive channels and a 32-to-1024 multiplexer unit. The transmit and receive circuitries have a variable sampling frequency of up to 80 MHz and 12-bit precision. Arbitrary waveforms are synthesized to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and to increase the spatial resolution when working with low-contrast objects. The setup was calibrated with academic objects and a needle hydrophone to develop the data correction tools and specify the properties of the system. The backscattering field was recorded using a restricted aperture, and tomographic acquisitions were performed with a pair of 0.08-mm-diameter steel wires, a low-contrast 2-D breast phantom, and a breast-shaped phantom containing inclusions. Data were processed with dedicated correction tools and a pulse compression technique. Objects were reconstructed using the elliptical back-projection algorithm.     

Design and fabrication of a 40-MHz annular array transducer

This paper investigates the feasibility of fabricating a five-ring, focused annular array transducer operating at 40 MHz. The active piezoelectric material of the transducer was a 9-microm thick polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film. One side of the PVDF was metallized with gold and forms the ground plane of the transducer. The array pattern of the transducer and electrical traces to each annulus were formed on a copper-clad polyimide film. The PVDF and polyimide were bonded with a thin layer of epoxy, pressed into a spherically curved shape, then back filled with epoxy. A five-ring transducer with equal area elements and 100-microm kerfs between annuli was fabricated and tested. The transducer had a total aperture of 6 mm and a geometric focus of 12 mm. The pulse/echo response from a quartz plate located at the geometric focus, two-way insertion loss (IL), complex impedance, electrical crosstalk, and lateral beamwidth all were measured for each annulus. The complex impedance data from each element were used to perform electrical matching, and the measurements were repeated. After impedance matching; fc approximately equal to 36 MHz and -6-dB bandwidths ranged from 31 to 39%. The ILs for the matched annuli ranged from -28 to -38 dB.     

Directional velocity estimation using a spatio-temporal encoding technique based on frequency division for synthetic transmit aperture ultrasound

This paper investigates the possibility of flow estimation using spatio-temporal encoding of the transmissions in synthetic transmit aperture imaging (STA). The spatial encoding is based on a frequency division approach. In STA, a major disadvantage is that only a single transmitter (denoting single transducer element or a virtual source) is used in every transmission. The transmitted acoustic energy will be low compared to a conventional focused transmission in which a large part of the aperture is used. By using several transmitters simultaneously, the total transmitted energy can be increased. However, to focus the data properly, the signals originating from the different transmitters must be separated. To do so, the pass band of the transducer is divided into a number of subbands with disjoint spectral support. At every transmission, each transmitter is assigned one of the subbands. In receive, the signals are separated using a simple filtering operation. To attain high axial resolution, broadband spectra must be synthesized for each of the transmitters. By multiplexing the different waveforms on different transmitters over a number of transmissions, this can be accomplished. To further increase the transmitted energy, the waveforms are designed as linear frequency modulated signals. Therefore, the full excitation amplitude can be used during most of the transmission. The method has been evaluated for blood velocity estimation for several different velocities and incident angles. The program Field II was used. A 128-element transducer with a center frequency of 7 MHz was simulated. The 64 transmitting elements were used as the transmitting aperture and 128 elements were used as the receiving aperture. Four virtual sources were created in every transmission. By beamforming lines in the flow direction, directional data were extracted and correlated. Hereby, the velocity of the blood was estimated. The pulse repetition frequency was 16 kHz. Three different setups were investigated with flow angles of 45, 60, and 75 degrees with respect to the acoustic axis. Four different velocities were simulated for each angle at 0.10, 0.25, 0.50, and 1.00 m/s. The mean relative bias with respect to the peak flow for the three angles was less than 2%, 2%, and 4%, respectively.     

Extrinsic optical-fiber ultrasound sensor using a thin polymer film as a low-finesse Fabry-Perot interferometer

Theoretical and experimental aspects of an extrinsic optical-fiber ultrasound sensor are described. The sensor is based on a thin transparent polymer film acting as a low-finesse Fabry-Perot cavity that is mounted at the end of a multimode optical fiber. Performance was found to be comparable with that of a piezoelectric polyvinylidene dinuoride-membrane (PVDP) hydrophone with a sensitivity of 61 mV/MPa, an acoustic noise floor of 2.3 KPa over a 25-MHz bandwidth, and a frequency response to 25 MHz. The wideband-sensitive response and design flexibility of the concept suggests that it may find application as an alternative to piezoelectric devices for the detection and measurement of ultrasound.