Stoving paint from Mesua ferrea L. seed oil based short oil polyester and MF resins blend

A short oil polyester resin based on Mesua ferrea L. (Nahar) seed oil was prepared by the conventional alcoholysis process with glycerol followed by polycondensation with phthalic anhydride using the azeotropic distillation technique. The extent of reaction (P) and average degree of polymerization (DP) with respect to the acid value were determined for this resinification reaction. This resin and a castor oil based similar type of resin were utilized for the preparation of stoving paints separately along with partially butylated melamine-formaldehyde (MF) resin (70:30 weight ratio) using an industrial Ball Mill system. The morphology and thermal stability of paints were studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and thermogravimetric (TG) analysis. The performance characteristics of both paints were investigated by measurement of gloss, flexibility, impact resistance, pencil hardness, adhesion, humidity and salt spray tests, etc. The results indicate that the paint based on Nahar oil polyester resin could be used in different applications as low cost stoving paint.     

Thermostable and flame retardant Mesua ferrea L. seed oil based non-halogenated epoxy resin/clay nanocomposites

Bio-based polymer nanocomposites have a unique niche of their own in the domain of green technology. A bio-based sulfone epoxy resin (BPSE) has been synthesized from the monoglyceride of Mesua ferrea L. seed oil, bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) sulfone, bisphenol-A and epichlorohydrin. The formation of resin was confirmed by the determination of viscosity, epoxy equivalent, etc. and the structure was elucidated from FTIR and ¹H NMR spectroscopies. This resin was used as the matrix for the preparation of epoxy/clay nanocomposites by ex situ technique using different doses of organo nano-clay (1, 2.5 and 5%, w/w). XRD, TEM, SEM, FTIR and rheological studies confirmed the formation of nanocomposites with partial exfoliated structure of the nano-clay. The study demonstrated that the tensile strength enhanced from 4 to 11.4 MPa, scratch hardness improved by two-fold, gloss value increased by 20 units, adhesive strength improved by two-fold and thermal stability improved by 19 °C on incorporation of 5 wt% of nano-clay with respect to the pristine polymer. The limiting oxygen index value and UL94 test indicated improvement of flame retardancy of the nanocomposites. The results exhibit the potentiality of these bio-based epoxy/clay nanocomposites for multifaceted advanced applications.     

Mesua ferrea L. seed oil based acrylate-modified thermostable and biodegradable highly branched polyester resin/clay nanocomposites

Mesua ferrea L. seed oil based highly branched polyester resin was modified by methyl methacrylate through grafting polymerization technique. The nanocomposites of this acrylate-modified polyester and 1–5 wt% loadings of organically modified montmorrilonite (OMMT) nanoclay were prepared by an ex situ technique using strong mechanical mixing and ultrasonication. Formation of nanocomposites was confirmed by X-ray diffractometeric (XRD), scanning electron microscopic (SEM) and transmission electron microscopic (TEM) analyses. The absence of d_{0 0 1} reflections of OMMT in XRD and TEM study revealed the partial exfoliation of OMMT by the polymer chain. The homogeneous surface morphology was also ascertained from SEM. Mechanical and thermal studies of the nanocomposites showed an appreciable improvement in tensile strength and thermal stability by OMMT loading. The enhancement of tensile strength by 2.5 times and thermal stability by 32 °C for 5 wt% OMMT filled nanocomposite was observed compared to that of pristine system. The rheological behavior of the nanocomposites was also investigated and shear thinning was observed. Biodegradation of the nanocomposite films was assayed using two strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, SD2 and SD3 and one strain of Bacillus subtilis, MTCC736. The nanocomposites exhibited enhanced biodegradability as compared to pristine acrylate modified polyester. All the results showed the potentiality of the nanocomposites as advanced thin film materials for suitable applications.     

Epoxidized Mesua ferrea L. seed oil-based reactive diluent for BPA epoxy resin and their green nanocomposites

An epoxidized vegetable oil of Mesua ferrea L. seed was prepared and used as a reactive diluent for commercial BPA-based epoxy resin at different compositions for the first time. The prepared epoxidized oil (ENO100) was characterized by determination of physical properties like epoxy equivalent, viscosity, hydroxyl value, saponification value, iodine value, acid value, etc. and FTIR study. The morphology and rheological characteristics of the ENO100 modified commercial epoxy systems have been studied by SEM and rheometer. The performance of poly(amido amine) cured above resin systems have been investigated by the measurement of drying time, tensile strength, elongation at break, adhesive strength, impact resistance, scratch hardness, gloss and chemical resistance studies. The results indicate that the epoxidized oil not only reduces the viscosity of the BPA-based epoxy resin but it also enhances the performance of the cured resin. The performance of this system (50 wt.% dilution) was further enhanced by formation of nanocomposites using ex-situ technique with organically modified nanoclay at different dose levels (1–5 wt.%).The formation of nanocomposites was confirmed by XRD, SEM and FTIR studies. The studies of above performance indicate the enhancement of properties compared to pristine system. As naturally renewable diluent is used in the above studies, so the resultant nanocomposites are green high performance materials with zero VOC.     

Extraction of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) seed oil using superheated hexane

Superheated hexane extraction (SHHE), Soxhlet extraction and cold pressing method were compared for the extraction of pomegranate seed oil. The extraction efficiencies of different temperatures (80, 100, 120 °C), mean particle sizes (0.25, 0.50 and 1.00 mm), and n-hexane flow rates (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mL/min) were investigated. The fatty acids profile of the seed oils were quantitatively determined by GC-FID. The optimum extraction temperature, mean particle size, and flow rate were selected as 80 °C, 0.25 mm, and 1 mL/min, respectively. The SHHE showed a higher extraction efficiency (22.18 wt%) within 2 h than Soxhlet extraction (17.94 wt%) for 24 h and cold pressing (4.29 wt%) for 72 h. The fatty acids profile for SHHE was more similar to that obtained by cold pressing method than Soxhlet extraction.     

Effect of the NCO/OH ratio on the properties of Mesua Ferrea L. seed oil‐modified polyurethane resins

A series of polyurethane resins with varying NCO/OH ratios (0.8–2.0) has been synthesized from the monoglyceride of Mesua Ferrea L. seed oil, poly(ethylene glycol) (M_n, 200 g mol^?1) and 2,4‐toluene diisocyanate in the presence of dibutyl tin dilaurate as the catalyst. The effects of the NCO/OH ratios of the synthesized resins on the physical properties, such as hydroxy values, acid values, saponification values, iodine values, specific gravities and isocyanate values have been studied. The formation of the polyurethane resins was confirmed by viscosity measurements, and FTIR, UV and ¹H NMR spectroscopic studies. Performance characteristics, such as impact resistance, flexibility, gloss, hardness, adhesive strength and chemical resistance, of the cured resins were investigated as a function of the varying NCO/OH ratios, with an influence of these ratios being observed for most of the above properties. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) demonstrated that the thermal stabilities of the cured resins increased with an increase in the NCO/OH ratios. The amounts of char residues at 550 °C were also found to be greater for higher NCO/OH ratios of the oil‐modified polyurethane resins. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Investigation of terminalia (Terminalia belerica Robx.) seed oil as prospective biodiesel source for North-East India

Terminalia (Terminalia belerica Robx.) is available in the northeastern region of India. The fruit of terminalia has some medicinal value and its kernel contains 43% oil. The prospect of terminalia oil for biodiesel production is investigated with reference to some relevant properties. The fatty acid profile of oil extracted from terminalia is found comparable with similar seed oils attempted for biodiesel production in this region. Terminalia oil contains 32.8% palmitic acid, 31.3% oleic acid, and 28.8% linoleic acid. The calorific value and kinematic viscosity of terminalia oil are 37.50 MJ/kg and 25.60 cSt, respectively. The calorific value and cetane number of terminalia FAME are within the acceptable limit of the EN 14214 standard. However, the flash point of terminalia FAME (90 °C) is relatively lower than the minimum required standard. Overall, the properties of biodiesel obtained from terminalia seed conform to the existing biodiesel standard. In addition to assisting the national biodiesel mission, the extension and regeneration of forest areas through terminalia planting would help us to curb the seemingly irreversible trend of de-forestation in the northeast region of India.     

Optimization of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of Passiflora seed oil

This study investigates extraction of Passiflora seed oil by using supercritical carbon dioxide. Artificial neural network (ANN) and response surface methodology (RSM) were applied for modeling and the prediction of the oil extraction yield. Moreover, process optimization were carried out by using both methods to predict the best operating conditions, which resulted in the maximum extraction yield of the Passiflora seed oil. The maximum extraction yield of Passiflora seed oil was estimated by ANN to be 26.55% under the operational conditions of temperature 56.5 °C, pressure 23.3 MPa, and the extraction time 3.72 h; whereas the optimum oil extraction yield was 25.76% applying the operational circumstances of temperature 55.9 °C, pressure 25.8 MPa, and the extraction time 3.95 h by RSM method. In addition, mean-squared-error (MSE) and relative error methods were utilized to compare the predicted values of the oil extraction yield obtained from both models with the experimental data. The results of the comparison reveal the superiority of ANN model compared to RSM model.     

Residual disinfection with N-halamine based antimicrobial paints

An N-halamine acrylamide monomer was copolymerized with the sodium salt of 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid to produce water-dispersible/soluble polymers. The polymers were added into a water-based latex paint and the treated paints were rendered antimicrobial upon chlorination with dilute household bleach. The chlorinated paints were exposed to fluorescent and ultraviolet light for several periods of time. The bound chlorine on the polymers was remarkably stable and the remaining chlorine on the treated paints after several weeks of light exposure was sufficient to provide 6-log inactivations of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria within 5–10 min of contact time. The samples exposed light could be rechlorinated to their initial chlorine loadings, indicating that the polymers were also very stable toward light irradiation. This study describes an effective approach to prepare antimicrobial surfaces providing long-term disinfection.     

Alkali catalyzed transesterification of safflower seed oil assisted by microwave irradiation

The safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) oil was extracted from the seeds of the safflower that grows in Diyarbakir, SE Anatolia of Turkey. Biodiesel has been prepared from safflower seed by transesterification of the crude oil under microwave irradiation, with methanol to oil molar ratio of 10:1, in the presence of 1.0% NaOH as catalyst. The conversion of C. tinctorius oil to methyl ester was over 98.4% at 6 min. The important fuel properties of safflower oil and its methyl ester (biodiesel) such as density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, iodine number, neutralization number, pour point, cloud point, cetane number are found out and compared to those of no. 2 petroleum diesel, ASTM and EN biodiesel standards. Compared with conventional heating methods, the process using microwaves irradiation proved to be a faster method for alcoholysis of triglycerides with methanol, leading to high yields of biodiesel.     

Extraction of biologically active compounds from Sideritis ssp. L.

In this study extraction of polyphenols and flavonoids from cultivated hybrid Sideritis scardica × Sideritis syriaca, known for its rich content of phenolics and flavonoids with antioxidant activity, was investigated. Extractions have been done by ethanol and water-ethanol, respectively. High equilibrium values of the extracted species were obtained—17.55 mg/(g solid) total phenolics and 5.7 mg/(g solid) total flavonoids with ethanol as solvent. The influence of the solvent on the total yield and the content of biologically active compounds were studied. Maximum polyphenolics and flavonoids extraction was observed for water-ethanol solvent ratio 20/80. Increase of the content of ethanol in the solvents led to lower total yield of extracts but higher percentage of polyphenolics. The extraction kinetics showed that 90% of the phenolic compounds were extracted during the first 2.5 h. The experimental kinetics was described by a constant effective diffusion coefficient D_e = 1.5 × 10⁻¹² m²/s in the solid, accounting for the actual particle size distribution.     

Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of triglycerides from Jatropha curcas L. seeds

This study examines the effects of pressure, temperature and solvent to solid ratio (SSR) on extraction efficiency of triglycerides from powdered Jatropha seeds by using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Supercritical extractions were designed for pressures ranging from 250 to 350 bar, temperatures ranging from 313 to 333 K and SSR values ranging from 65:1 to 125:1. All values were selected using response surface methodology in order to determine their effects on the concentration of triglycerides from the extracted oil. Using 3750 g of carbon dioxide over 5 h, a supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (at 350 bar, 333 K and an SSR value of 125:1) yielded 43.51% oil. The concentration and extraction efficiency (i.e. recovery) of triglycerides in the extract reached 657.1 mg/g and 97.62%, respectively. Changes in pressure presented more effective in increasing the recovery of triglycerides, but both temperature and the SSR value are important in obtaining high concentration of triglycerides from the Jatropha seeds that are useful for biodiesel materials.     

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) seed oil obtained with a homemade supercritical fluid extraction system using supercritical CO2 and co-solvent

In this work we designed and built a homemade supercritical fluid extraction (HM-SFE) system, in which pure CO₂ and CO₂ with co-solvents were used. The HM-SFE was made by means of thermal dilatation-contraction (TDC). This HM-SFE system was used for obtaining guava (Psidium guajava L.) seed oil, using supercritical CO₂ adding ethanol as co-solvent (CO₂ SC/EtOH), extractions were performed at 313 K and different pressures (10, 20 and 30 MPa), each one in four stages of 30 min, the extract with higher yield was subjected to transesterification and high-resolution gas chromatography (HRGC) analysis. The highest extraction yield was obtained at 30 MPa (17.30% w/w), this yield was higher than one observed in a previous work using SC-CO₂, and near to the one obtained by Soxhlet extraction (20.2% w/w). HRGC enabled the identification of components of the derivatized extract as methyl esters of palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and stearic fatty acids. The results obtained with HM-SFE system was compared with a commercial SFE system, obtained very similar results. In this work was possible to construct a low cost and simple manner HM-SFE system which was employed for obtaining guava seed oil, using CO₂ SC/EtOH.     

Removal of several metal ions from aqueous solution using powdered stem of Arundo donax L. as a new biosorbent

Arundo donax L., a member of Poaceae, was washed, dried, selected, pulverized, and then used for removal of Cu(II), Cd(II), Ni(II), Pb(II) and Zn(II) from aqueous solution. Series batch experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of contact time, pretreatment, particle size of biomass and solution pH on the biosorption capability of A. donax L. powder. The desorption characteristics and renewability of the biomass were also studied. The applicability of Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms was examined for the experimental data, so did the pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order and Elovich kinetic models. Results showed that alkali-treated A. donax L. biomass was more appropriate to be the bio-material for biosorption when compared to acid-treated, washed and virgin A. donax L. Owing to its fast adsorption rate, high uptake capacity and the renewability of facility, stem of A. donax L. treated with NaOH seems to be a promising biosorbent for removal of heavy metals from wastewater.     

Studies on newly developed urethane modified polyetheramide coatings from Albizia benth oil

Polyetheramide resin based on the condensation polymerisation of N-N-bis (2-hydroxyethyl) Albizia benth oil fatty amide with bisphenol-A was synthesized. The polyetheramide was further modified with urethane linkage resulting from the addition reaction of free hydroxyl groups of the hydroxylethyl Albizia benth oil fatty amide and the isocyanate moeity of toluene 2,4 di-isocyanate. The spectroscopic characterisation (FT-IR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR) as well as the thermal, physicochemical and coating properties of the polyetheramide and its urethaned modified derivatives were carried out. Urethanation led to curing at lower temperature, increase in glass transition and improvement in coating properties and resistance to chemical corrosion.     

Conventional and in situ transesterification of castor seed oil for biodiesel production

In the present study, biodiesel production from Ricinus communis L. red and BRS-149 nordestina varieties seed oil is reported. Reactions were made through conventional and in situ processes using ethanol and evaluating the addition of n-hexane as co-solvent. The content of ethyl esters was quantified by ¹H NMR. The highest conversions were obtained from crude oil (conventional reaction) after pre-esterification, using ethanol and a molar ratio of alcohol to oil of 60; furthermore, the addition of n-hexane was not significant on yield. Under these conditions, best conversion was around 95% for both varieties.     

Supercritical fluid extraction of daphne (Laurus nobilis L.) seed oil

Laurus nobilis L., commonly known as daphne tree, is an evergreen that belongs to the Lauraceae family. Daphne trees produce grape-sized shiny purplish berries having three parts: flesh, skin, and an inner kernel (single seed). This study examines supercritical CO₂ (SC-CO₂) extraction of oil from daphne seeds. The oil yield of ground seeds varied from 14 to 28% depending on the method and particle size used for oil recovery. Yields were similar for both petroleum ether and SC-CO₂ extraction. The extraction yield decreased significantly with increasing particle size. The amount of extract collected increased exponentially with increasing SC-CO₂ pressure. The highest extraction yield was obtained at the highest temperature studied, 75°C. More than 45% of the oil was lauric acid. SC-CO₂ is a viable technique to obtain high-purity L. nobilis L. seed oil, which is a potential ingredient for the cosmetic industry.     

Supercritical fluid extraction of wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.)

The objective of the work was to optimize the extraction of wormwood oil by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of growth-controlled plant material. Different extraction conditions, two growth techniques and various crops were tested and the evolution of the extracted oil composition was screened chromatographically. A comparison with conventional techniques such as hydrodistillation (HD) or organic solvent extraction (OSE) was also presented. Particularly, six CO₂ densities ranging from 285.0 kg/m³ to 819.5 kg/m³ were studied in the range of 9.0-18.0 MPa and 40-50 °C. A systematic study was carried out with plant material from 2005, while SFE of 2006, 2008 and aeroponically grown crops was performed for comparative purposes. The effect of ethanol as a modifier of the supercritical fluid extraction was also studied. The major compounds found in the SFE extracts as well as in the HD essential oils were Z-epoxyocimene, chrysanthenol and chrysanthenyl acetate. A model based on mass transfer equations, the Sovová model, was successfully applied to correlate the experimental data.     

Supercritical impregnation of lavandin (Lavandula hybrida) essential oil in modified starch

Lavandin (Lavandula hybrida) essential oil contains components with biocide properties that can be used as substitutes of synthetic drugs in livestock. This application requires an appropriate formulation of the essential oil. In this work, supercritical impregnation of lavandin oil has been proposed as a possible formulation process, due to the high solubility of lavandin essential oil in supercritical carbon dioxide. The polymer used in this work as carrier material was starch modified with the n-octenil succinate (OSA) group, in the form of powder with a particle size of 30 μm. The effects of operational pressure (10-12 MPa), temperature (313-323 K) and lavandin oil to starch mass ratio (0.2-1) were studied. Impregnation loads ranging from 25 to 150 mg lavandin oil/g OSA-starch were obtained. The distribution coefficient of essential oil between the starch and the supercritical phase as well as the essential oil load depended on the density of CO₂.     

Extracts from pitanga (Eugenia uniflora L.) leaves: Influence of extraction process on antioxidant properties and yield of phenolic compounds

Different extraction processes were employed to extract the polyphenolic compounds from pitanga (Eugenia uniflora L.) leaves: a one-step process using water, ethanol or supercritical CO₂ as solvents, and a two-step process using supercritical CO₂ followed by either water or ethanol. The total polyphenolic compounds, total flavonoids and antioxidant activity were determined in all the extracts obtained. The process performance was evaluated with respect to three variables: global extraction yield, concentration and yield of both polyphenols and flavonoids in the extracts. For the one-step extraction, the results showed that the extraction yield increased with solvent polarity. For the two-step process, the results suggested that water was more efficient in extracting the phenolic compounds from E. uniflora when the matrix was previously extracted with scCO₂. With respect to the antioxidant activity, the ethanolic extracts obtained from both processes, using either the DPPH radical scavenging method or the β-carotene bleaching method, presented high antioxidant activities.