Mechanisms in the generation of grinding wheel topography by dressing

For the process of dressing vitrified bonded grinding wheels with diamond tools it has been unknown how the wheel topography is generated. Moreover, the influence of the kinematical dressing parameters on the wheel wear behavior has not been quantified. In the course of this article the grinding wheel was dealt with as a porous ceramic composite. In FEM simulations common dressing forces and usual dressing tool geometries were applied. The results were verified by dressing tests and grinding wheel scratch tests which show the wheel wear mechanisms. The common practice of decreasing the grinding wheel surface roughness by a finishing dressing stroke has to be reconsidered, because previous dressing strokes with higher depths of cut can weaken the grinding wheel structure and lead to an unsteady phase with high grinding wheel wear after dressing.     

Predictive modeling of surface roughness in grinding

The surface roughness is a variable often used to describe the quality of ground surfaces as well as to evaluate the competitiveness of the overall grinding system. This paper presents the prediction of the arithmetic mean surface roughness based on a probabilistic undeformed chip thickness model. The model expresses the ground finish as a function of the wheel microstructure, the process kinematic conditions, and the material properties. The analysis includes a geometrical analysis of the grooves left on the surface by ideal conic grains. The material properties and the wheel microstructure are considered in the surface roughness prediction through the chip thickness model. A simple expression that relates the surface roughness with the chip thickness was found, which was verified using experimental data from cylindrical grinding.     

Experimental study on grinding force and grinding temperature of Aermet 100 steel in surface grinding

This paper investigates grinding force and grinding temperature of ultra-high strength steel Aermet 100 in conventional surface grinding using a single alumina wheel, a white alumina wheel and a cubic boron nitride wheel. First, mathematical models of grinding force and grinding temperature for three wheels were established. Then, the role of chip formation force and friction force in grinding force was investigated and thermal distribution in contact zone between workpiece and wheel was analyzed based on the mathematical model. The experimental result indicated that the minimum grinding force and the maximum grinding force ratio under the same grinding parameters can be achieved when using a CBN wheel and a single alumina wheel, respectively. When the phenomenon of large grinding force and high grinding temperature appeared, the workpiece material would adhere locally to the single alumina wheel. Grinding temperature was in a high state under the effect of two main aspects: poor thermal properties of grinding wheel and low coolant efficiency. The predicted value of grinding force and grinding temperature were compared with those experimentally obtained and the results show a reasonable agreement.     

金刚石砂轮磨削铁氧体的表面粗糙度与形貌分析

本文研究了树脂结合剂金刚石砂轮磨削铁氧体材料时,磨削深度、工件进给速度对磨削表面粗糙度和材料去除方式的影响规律,以此探索提高铁氧体磨削表面质量的有效途径。采用单因素法设计试验方案对铁氧体进行磨削,测量表面粗糙度数据并对其进行方差分析,对铁氧体磨削表面形貌进行观察。结果表明：随着磨削深度、工件进给速度的增加,表面粗糙度值升高,同时表面塑性痕迹减少,脆性断裂痕迹增加,且磨削深度对表面粗糙度的影响要比工件进给速度的更显著,因此,制定磨削工艺时,考虑到粗磨为了提高效率,降低表面损伤,优化得到磨削工艺为磨削深度5μm,工件进给速度10 m/min;精磨为了获得较低的表面粗糙度,采用磨削深度5μm、工件进给速度为5 m/min,可以提高磨削表面延展性。     

基于图像拼接的砂轮表面三维形貌图重构

为了实现大面积砂轮表面形貌的计算机视觉检测,本文利用视频系统从两个不同视角采集钎焊金刚石砂轮表面形貌,通过特征配准法找出两幅图像的特征点和匹配点,然后对图像进行拼接融合,最终得到拼接后的目标图像,实现了砂轮表面三维形貌图的有效重构。     

Wave-shift and its effect on surface quality in super-abrasive grinding

One of the problems limiting the use of many super-abrasive wheels is the wheel run-out, which cannot be effectively reduced below the value of several micrometers. Work waviness, generated by the run-out, depends on a wave-shift, overlapping the pattern of wheel revolutions in subsequent revolutions of the workpiece. A suitably selected wave-shift can result in a significant reduction of waviness. The present day machines are not equipped with wheel-work synchronisation control and wave-shift remains one of the random factors in the grinding process. The wave-shift phenomenon was investigated in the mid seventies in conjunction with the wheel unbalance of conventional wheels. The run-out of these wheels can be reduced to a fraction of a micrometer by suitable balancing and dressing so the wave-shift control, difficult to implement at that time, was not required. The present super-abrasive wheels exhibit significant run-outs and the advances in motor control make wheel-work synchronisation of sufficient accuracy possible.     

电火花修锐对金属结合剂CBN砂轮表面形貌的影响

采用电火花修锐方法对青铜结合剂锯齿形CBN砂轮在平面磨床上进行修锐实验,对修锐前后的砂轮表面形貌进行观测,修锐后砂轮的有效磨粒数、磨粒凸出高度明显增加,修锐时间以4~6h为宜;采用修锐后的砂轮对材料2T8/SK5进行了锯齿磨削加工实验,经测量,锯齿角度轮廓精度有较大提高。电火花修锐方法适合于金属基CBN砂轮的修锐。     

基于聚焦合成的砂轮表面三维重构方法

提出一种基于聚焦合成的重构砂轮三维地貌的新方法。利用显微镜物镜焦深范围有限,观察砂轮样本时不能聚焦清晰图像的特点,先采集同一区域的一系列聚焦在不同深度的图像,用图像聚焦评价函数进行图像叠合、比较,得到图像中不同位置的深度信息,最后通过高斯插值法得到砂轮表面的三维地貌。并根据所得到的三维地貌数据,对砂轮磨刃高度分布进行了计算。     

A novel contact/non-contact hybrid measurement system for surface topography characterization

A novel surface profile measurement instrument, developed for the characterization of engineering surfaces, is presented. The instrument is of a hybrid type and is capable of contact and non-contact measurement, making it suitable for a wider range of applications. It has an optical displacement sensor and a stylus displacement sensor. For contact measurement, the vertical measurement range and resolution of the instrument are 1 mm and 10 nm, respectively. For non-contact measurement, they are 500 μm and 3 nm, respectively. The instrument has been successfully used for several forensic applications, demonstrating its unique flexibility and high reliability as a novel surface topography instrument.     

Model for surface topography prediction in peripheral milling considering tool vibration

This paper presents a model for the prediction of surface topography in peripheral milling operations taking into account that the tool vibrates during the cutting process. The model includes the effect of tool vibrations in the equations of the cutting edge paths, which are transformed into equivalent polynomial equations and solved for discrete positions along the feed direction by applying a standard root finder. Through this procedure, surface topography generation is simplified with respect to other models in literature. The model allows the topography, the roughness values and the form errors of the milled surface to be predicted. Cutting test results show good agreement with model predictions.     

A study on the effects of vibrations on the surface finish using a surface topography simulation model for turning

In this paper, a surface topography simulation model is established to simulate the surface finish profile generated after a turning operation. The surface topography simulation model incorporates the effects of the relative motion between the cutting tool and the workpiece with the effects of tool geometry to simulate the resultant surface geometry. It is experimentally shown that the surface topography simulation model can properly simulate the surface profile generated by turning operations. The surface topography simulation model is used to study the effects of vibrations on the surface finish profile. It is found that the vibration frequency ratio is a more important vibration parameter than the vibration frequency on the characterization of the surface finish profile. The vibration frequency ratio is the ratio between the vibration frequency and the spindle rotational speed.     

Experimental investigation of surface/subsurface damage formation and material removal mechanisms in SiC grinding

The difficulty and cost involved in the abrasive machining of hard and brittle ceramics are among the major impediments to the widespread use of advanced ceramics in industries these days. It is often desired to increase the machining rate while maintaining the desired surface integrity. The success of this approach, however, relies in the understanding of mechanism of material removal on the microstructural scale and the relationship between the grinding characteristics and formation of surface/subsurface machining-induced damage. In this paper, grinding characteristics, surface integrity and material removal mechanisms of SiC ground with diamond wheel on surface grinding machine have been investigated. The surface and subsurface damages have been studied with scanning electron microscope (SEM). The effects of grinding conditions on surface/subsurface damage have been discussed. This research links the surface roughness, surface and subsurface damages to grinding parameters and provides valuable insights into the material removal mechanism and the dependence of grinding-induced damage on grinding conditions.     

The effect of machined topography and integrity on fatigue life

The paper reviews published data which address the effect of machining (conventional and non-conventional processes) and the resulting workpiece surface topography/integrity on fatigue performance, for a variety of workpiece materials. The effect of post-machining surface treatments, such as shot peening, are also detailed. The influence of amplitude height parameters (Ra, Rt), amplitude distribution (Rsk) and shape (Rku) parameters, as well as spatial (Std, Sal) and hybrid (Ssc) measures, are considered.There is some disagreement in the literature about the correlation between workpiece surface roughness and fatigue life. In most cases, it has been reported that lower roughness results in longer fatigue life, but that for roughness values in the range 2.5–5 μm Ra it is primarily dependent on workpiece residual stress and surface microstructure, rather than roughness. In the absence of residual stress, machined surface roughness in excess of 0.1 μm Ra has a strong influence on fatigue life. Temperatures above 400 °C reduce the effects of both residual stress and surface roughness on fatigue, due to stress relieving and the change in crack initiation from the surfaces to internal sites. The presence of inclusions an order of magnitude larger than the machined surface roughness generally overrides the effect of surface topography.     

Generalized practical models of cylindrical plunge grinding processes

This paper presents generalized grinding process models developed for cylindrical grinding processes based on the systematic analysis and experiments. The generalized model forms are established to maintain the same model structures with a minimal number of parameters so that the model coefficients can be determined through a small number of experiments when applied to different grinding workpiece materials and wheels. The relationships for power, surface roughness, G-ratio and surface burning are established for various steel alloys and alumina grinding wheels. It is shown that the established models provide good predictive capabilities while maintaining simple structures.     

An improved cutting force and surface topography prediction model in end milling

During the milling operation, the cutting forces will induce vibration on the cutting tool, the workpiece, and the fixtures, which will affect the surface integrity of the final part and consequently the product's quality. In this paper, a generic and improved model is introduced to simultaneously predict the conventional cutting forces along with 3D surface topography during side milling operation. The model incorporates the effects of tool runout, tool deflection, system dynamics, flank face wear, and the tool tilting on the surface roughness. An improved technique to calculate the instantaneous chip thickness is also presented. The model predictions on cutting forces and surface roughness and topography agreed well with experimental results.     

3D surface topography assessment of the effect of different electrolytes during electrochemical polishing of EDM surfaces

In many countries the most common polishing practice in die making is to hand polish the part as a finishing operation after the electro discharge machining process (EDM). The usual polishing abrasives are silicon carbide paper and diamond paste of different grit sizes.However, during the last decade researchers especially in Japan and the USA have tried to combine EDM and electrochemical machining (ECM) in one machine so as to use the positive aspects of each individual process. The ECM process uses high density, typically 50 A/cm², and also a pulse current with a servo-controlled electrode. These investigators have mostly used sodium nitrate solutions (of different concentrations) as the electrolyte.This paper deals with an experiment that was undertaken in order to assess the effect of four different electrolytes in an electrochemical polishing process (ECP) on the surface topography of EDM surfaces. The primary set of 3D surface parameters was used as a basis to characterise the surface produced by the combined processes in different electrolytic media.     

Relationship between surface roughness and subsurface crack depth during grinding of optical glass BK7

Subsurface damages induced by grinding strongly influence the mechanical strength and optical quality of optical glasses. It is meaningful to rapid evaluate the depth of subsurface cracking through the measurement of surface roughness under different grinding parameters. Based on the features of surface and subsurface cracks as well as the kinetic analysis of surface grinding, the relationship between surface roughness and subsurface crack depth was established. Surface grinding experiments for optical glass BK7 were conducted. Utilizing optical microscope, optical profiling system and polishing-etching technique, the dependence of surface roughness and subsurface crack depth on grinding parameters was systematically analyzed. The predicted model of the relationship between surface roughness and subsurface crack depth was compared with experimental results. It was found that the relationship between surface roughness and subsurface crack depth is influenced by the half apex angle of abrasive grain as well as the magnitude of extra grain extrusion.     

An investigation on surface grinding using graphite as lubricant

Grinding requires high specific energy and the consequent development of high temperature impairs workpiece quality by inducing tensile residual stress, burn, micro cracks etc. Control of grinding temperature is achieved by providing effective cooling and lubrication. Conventional flood cooling is often ineffective due to the relative inaccessibility of the fluid to the actual grinding zone, film boiling etc. Further these fluids are also a source of health hazards. Minimization and possibly the elimination of fluid coolants by substituting their functions by some other means is of current research interest. This paper deals with an investigation on using graphite as a lubricating medium to reduce the heat generated at the grinding zone. An experimental set-up has been developed for this and a detailed comparison has been done with dry and coolant flooded grinding in terms of forces, specific energy, temperature and surface finish. Results show that grinding force, energy and temperature are reduced and resultant surface finish depends on workpiece material.     

Fine grinding of silicon wafers: designed experiments

Silicon wafers are the most widely used substrates for semiconductors. The falling price of silicon wafers has created tremendous pressure to develop cost-effective processes to manufacture silicon wafers. Fine grinding possesses great potential to reduce the overall cost for manufacturing silicon wafers. The uniqueness and the special requirements of fine grinding have been discussed in a paper published earlier in this journal. As a follow-up, this paper presents the results of a designed experimental investigation into fine grinding of silicon wafers. In this investigation, a three-variable two-level full factorial design is employed to reveal the main effects as well as the interaction effects of three process parameters (wheel rotational speed, chuck rotational speed and feed-rate). The process outputs studied include grinding force, spindle motor current, cycle time, surface roughness and grinding marks.     

Residual stresses, distortion and surface roughness produced by grinding thin wall ductile iron plates

This work deals with grinding effects on thin wall ductile iron plates. Residual stresses, shape distortion and surface roughness were measured on thin wall plates of different nodule count, ferritised and afterwards dry ground under several grinding conditions. In all cases, tensile residual stresses are maximum at the surface, and their profile decreases with depth until becoming compressive. No phase transformations can be observed at depths of up to 30 μm below surface, although plastic deformation is visible through nodules and grains enlargement. Distortion increases when the depth of cut and nodule count increase and the workspeed decreases. The mean stresses of the profile tensile zone also increase when the nodule count increases. Surface roughness improves slightly as nodule count increases and workspeed decreases. This tendency is more noticeable when depth of cut decreases. The arithmetic mean roughness (Ra) values obtained were always below 0.8 μm.