The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth

While research has well documented that urban youth are exposed to increasing rates of community violence, little is known about what increases risk for violence exposure, what protects children from exposure to violence, and what factors reduce the most negative outcomes associated with witnessing violence. This study expands on current research by evaluating the relations between exposure to violence, family relationship characteristics and parenting practices, and aggression and depression symptoms. Data were drawn from a sample of 245 African-American and Latino boys and their caregivers from economically disadvantaged inner-city neighborhoods in Chicago. Rates of exposure could not be predicted from family relationship and parenting characteristics, although there was a trend for discipline to be related. Exposure to community violence was related to increases in aggressive behavior and depression over a 1-year period even after controlling for previous status. Future studies should continue to evaluate the role of exposure to violence on the development of youth among different neighborhoods and communities. Implications for intervention and policy are discussed.     

Social–cognitive mediators of the association between community violence exposure and aggressive behavior.

There is increased awareness that exposure to violence in the community can influence students’ aggressive behavior at school; however, less is known about the mechanisms that mediate this process. Having an enhanced understanding of how community violence exposure relates to students’ aggressive behavior at school may inform the use of preventive interventions aimed at reducing school violence. Consistent with social–cognitive theory, the current study tested whether the association between exposure to community violence and teacher-reported aggressive behavior was mediated by biased social information processing. Data on 184 suburban adolescents and their teachers were analyzed with structural equation modeling. Community violence exposure and aggressive behavior in the classroom were significantly related and mediated by negatively biased social–cognitive factors. Results suggest that even relatively low levels of community violence exposure may increase the risk of students displaying aggressive behavior at school. Although gender differences were explored, social information processing appeared to be an important mediator for both boys and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the Virginia threat assessment guidelines versus alternative approaches.

Threat assessment has been widely recommended as a violence prevention approach for schools, but there are few empirical studies of its use. This nonexperimental study of 280 Virginia public high schools compared 95 high schools using the Virginia threat assessment guidelines (Cornell & Sheras, 2006), 131 following other (i.e., locally developed) threat assessment procedures, and 54 not using a threat assessment approach. A survey of 9th grade students in each school obtained measures of student victimization, willingness to seek help for bullying and threats of violence, and perceptions of the school climate as caring and supportive. Students in schools using the Virginia threat assessment guidelines reported less bullying, greater willingness to seek help, and more positive perceptions of the school climate than students in either of the other 2 groups of schools. In addition, schools using the Virginia guidelines had fewer long-term suspensions than schools using other threat assessment approaches. These group differences could not be attributed to school size, minority composition or socioeconomic status of the student body, neighborhood violent crime, or the extent of security measures in the schools. Implications for threat assessment practice and research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A preliminary examination of the relationship between exposure to community violence and academic functioning.

Provides a preliminary examination of the relationship between exposure to community violence and academic functioning in a group of 45 African American children (aged 11–14 yrs) living in an impoverished urban environment. In addition, the role of family achievement expectations and religion, 2 previously identified family compensatory factors related to academic resilience, were evaluated as moderators of the relationship between community violence and academic functioning. Ss completed questionnaires about the variables mentioned above. Results suggest that exposure to community violence had a weak relationship with academic functioning in general, but that relationship was intensified under certain circumstances. Significant interactions between exposure to community violence, and both family achievement orientation and religious emphasis suggest that exposure to community violence may alter the role of previously identified compensatory factors. Children who perceived very high achievement expectations and a very strong moral-religious emphasis were most at risk for poor academic functioning as exposure to community violence increased, although children from these types of families displayed the highest academic functioning at lower levels of community violence exposure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of Hurricane Andrew on deviant behavior among a multi-racial/ethnic sample of adolescents in Dade County, Florida: a longitudinal analysis

Findings from a longitudinal study are presented on the relationships between the problems and stresses resulting from Hurricane Andrew and posthurricane minor deviant behavior. The sample (N = 4,978) included Hispanic, African-American, and White non-Hispanic middle school students enrolled in Dade County, Florida public schools. Two waves of data were collected prior to the hurricane; a third was obtained approximately 6 months following the storm. Results indicated that females were likely to report higher levels of hurricane-related stress symptoms than males. After controlling for prehurricane levels of minor deviance, family support, and race/ethnicity, hurricane stress symptom level remained a significant predictor of posthurricane minor deviant behavior. The findings lend support to stress theories of social deviance.     

Collective efficacy: A neglected construct in the study of schools and student achievement.

A theoretical analysis is advanced that discusses social cognitive theory at the group level to explain the formation and impact of collective efficacy. The study used student- and school-level data from a sample of urban elementary schools. Consistent with social cognitive theory, mastery experience was found to be a significant predictor of differences between schools in teachers' collective efficacy perceptions. In addition, after controlling for student demographic characteristics and prior achievement, collective efficacy was positively and significantly related to differences among schools in student achievement. Finally, the amount of consensus among faculty members regarding collective efficacy perceptions was not a significant predictor of student achievement, nor was it significantly related to school socioeconomic status or minority concentration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal and family backgrounds of first-year veterinary science students at the University of Queensland

OBJECTIVE: To provide information on changes in the social and educational backgrounds of veterinary students over a 10 year period in an effort to determine the extent to which they are representative of the community. METHODS: Questionnaires were completed by first-year veterinary students at The University of Queensland in 1985 and 1986 (152 students), and 1995 and 1996 (154), and the data were analysed using the SAS System for Windows. RESULTS: The gender ratio of first-year veterinary students was 50:50 (male:female) in 1985 and 1986 but 10 years later it had changed to 38:62. In 1985 and 1986 77% had come directly from school, with 43% of the total coming from government schools, 17% from Catholic schools and 34% from other private (independent) schools. A decade later the percentage coming directly from school had decreased to 40%, that from Independent schools increased to 45% and that from cities increased from 53% to 64%. The educational backgrounds of parents varied widely though a high percentage had university degrees; mothers had received less formal education than fathers, and the educational attainments of both parents were higher at the beginning than at the end of the study. More than half (57% initially; 67% 10 years later) the fathers were in professional or managerial occupations, and a similar number (50% initially; 48% 10 years later) of mothers were teachers, nurses or clerks. The number of males from country areas decreased from 26 to 16 over this period. CONCLUSION: These veterinary students differed from the community generally in that progressively more were female, more were from Independent schools, their parents had more formal education and more of their parents were in professional, managerial or clerical occupations.     

The future of Medicare. Their plans, your practice, Medicare reform, and how it will affect the practice of dermatology

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between adolescent risk behaviours, taking into account their influence upon one another. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey utilising a self-completed questionnaire; stepwise logistic regression analyses were carried out, stratified for gender. SETTING: High schools in the Cape Peninsula, South Africa SUBJECTS: 7,340 students from 16 schools in the three major education departments. OUTCOME MEASURES: The outcome variables for each regression model were: cigarette smoking, cannabis smoking, alcohol bingeing, sexual intercourse, knife-carrying at school, walking home at night from beyond the neighbourhood, attempting suicide, and failure to use a seat belt. For each model, 26 risk behaviours served as independent variables. RESULTS: For each model, between 3 and 9 variables qualified for inclusion for each gender. There was a substantial association between many forms of substance abuse. In the previous 12 months, suicidal thoughts or statements of suicidal intent were predictors of a suicide attempt. Several variables involving injury were predictors of exposure to danger in getting home at night, and this was a predictor of substance abuse. Cannabis smoking, alcohol bingeing and exposure to danger in getting home at night were predictors of and were predicted by having had sexual intercourse. CONCLUSION: There are significant relationships between many adolescent risk behaviours, even when the influence of other risk behaviours is taken into account. The probability of adverse sequelae of risk behaviours, such as exposure to danger in getting home at night and sexual intercourse, is increased by the presence of selected other risk behaviours.     

Sense of community among school psychologists on an Internet site.

A major challenge confronting psychologists is finding relevant professional development experiences. An Internet-based professional community is one approach to meeting this challenge. The authors investigated the development of such a professional community among school psychologists. Results from behavioral measures and questionnaires reflected a moderate to strong sense of community among the participants. The single best predictor of sense of community was the participants' perceptions that the Internet site enhanced their professional development. On-line participation and social support also related to sense of community. Results suggest that the Internet is a promising medium for the development of professional communities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Warzone violence in Vietnam: an examination of premilitary, military, and postmilitary factors in PTSD in-patients

The impact of childhood victimization and other premilitary factors on warzone abusive violence was examined with 177 Vietnam combat veteran inpatients. Premilitary and military variables were also examined in relationship to postmilitary variables, including violence and PTSD. Statistical analyses showed that none of the premilitary variables predicted warzone violence. High combat exposure did, however, predict warzone abusive violence and PTSD. In addition, participation in warzone violence predicted postmilitary violence to self, spouse, and others. Although high rates of childhood victimization and high levels of combat exposure were found, neither predicted postmilitary violence, criminal activities, drug/alcohol problems, or suicide attempts. Low childhood adjustment ratings and school suspensions predicted adult alcohol abuse and drug abuse, respectively. These findings and their implication for treatment are discussed.     

Effects of attending single-sex and coeducational high schools on achievement, attitudes, behaviors, and sex differences.

The purposes of the present investigation were (a) to compare the effects of single-sex and coed high schools on achievements, attitudes and behaviors and (b) to determine whether attending single-sex schools affected well-established sex differences in these variables. Subjects were 2,332 Catholic high school students attending one of 47 single-sex or 33 coed schools included in the nationally representative High School and Beyond (HSB) study. The effects of school type, sex, and their interaction on senior year outcomes and postsecondary activities were examined after controlling for variables measured during the sophomore year. Changes in a wide variety of outcomes during this critical sophomore-to-senior period were nearly unaffected by school type. Changes in many of these outcomes were related to sex, but these sex differences were also nearly unaffected by school type. Interpretations of this study contradict those of earlier studies that were also based on large nationally representative data bases, but the differences were apparently explicable in terms of methodological problems identified in the earlier studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Medical clinics in junior high school: changing the model to meet demands

PURPOSE: To document the development of an initiative undertaken by the Columbia University School of Public Health to provide medical, mental health, and social services in inner city junior high school-based clinics. METHODS: Review of records, reports, and foundation proposals from 1984-1993. Site visits, interviews with clinic staff, school personnel, and students. RESULTS: Years of planning and community development produced four clinics in the Washington Heights area of New York City, the first school-based clinics located in junior high schools in the country. After seven years, the program has the capacity to serve over 4,000 students who present an overwhelming array of physical, psychological, social, and family problems. Almost 23,000 visits were made to the clinics this year: 49% for medical services, 38% for social services, and 13% for health education. As the demand multiplied, a form of triage was implemented that tracked the highest risk students into intensive individual and group interventions. Primary health screening, mental health services, and pregnancy prevention were identified among the critical needs in this deprived community. CONCLUSIONS: Over the years, the clinics have become integrated into the fabric of the schools. Strategies for working in urban junior high schools must be broad, encompassing medical and mental health services, group counseling, life planning and career orientation, along with enhancement of the total school and learning environment.     

Two-parent, stepparent, and single-parent families: Changes in achievement, attitudes, and behaviors during the last two years of high school.

In the High School and Beyond study (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1986), students were asked in their sophomore year and again in their senior year whether they lived with their mother, a stepmother, their father, or a stepfather. Comparisons were made among 3 family configurations (2-parent, stepparent, and single-parent families) when they were stable during the last 2 years of high school and when the family configuration changed. 22 senior-year and postsecondary outcomes were related to different family configurations. After controlling for background variables (sex, race, SES, etc.) and comparable sophomore-year outcomes, differences in family configurations had little effect on the senior-year and postsecondary outcomes. This lack of effect was consistent across subgroups based on sex, race, religion, SES, and other background variables. Results suggest that for a wide variety of outcome variables, growth and change during the last 2 years of high school are relatively unrelated to different family configurations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in medical students' perceptions of family practice resulting from a required clerkship

BACKGROUND: Career choice research has shown that exposing medical students to family medicine, through a special medical school emphasis or a required clerkship, correlates with an increased rate of selection of family practice. It has been hypothesized that actual exposure to family medicine mitigates the negative stereotypes held by many medical students. METHODS: This study used a qualitative strategy to examine how a family medicine clerkship altered medical students' perceptions and attitudes toward this specialty. A series of 12 focus groups were conducted with the students who had just completed a required family medicine junior core clerkship at our institution. RESULTS: Focus group findings confirmed the existence of negative stereotypes about family practice among medical students and provided additional information on their nature and origins. In addition, student comments indicated that a third-year family medicine clerkship experience dispelled this negative stereotyping and instilled in students a greater respect for and interest in family practice. CONCLUSION: Third-year clerkships can enhance students' perceptions of family practice by dispelling negative stereotypes and by providing medical students with a more accurate portrayal of the nature of this primary care specialty.     

An ecological-transactional understanding of community violence: Theoretical perspectives.

Community violence has emerged as a major risk factor for the development of mental health problems in children and adolescents. If mental health providers are to meet the needs of children and communities dealing with community violence, then they will need to integrate principles from various subdisciplines in psychology (e.g., developmental psychology, school psychology, developmental psychopathology) as well as disciplines outside of psychology (e.g., sociology, public health, medicine) to understand fully the developmental impact of exposure to community violence. The development of such a model is necessary to identify the pathways, risk, and protective factors on which prevention and intervention programs can be built. The goal of this article is to present an ecological-transactional model of community violence as a conceptual framework for understanding the existing literature and for guiding future research on community violence exposure and child development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parents' motivations for involvement in children's education: An empirical test of a theoretical model of parental involvement.

This study examined the ability of a theoretical model to predict types and levels of parental involvement during the elementary and middle school years. Predictor variables included parents' motivational beliefs about involvement, perceptions of invitations to involvement from others, and perceived life context variables. Analyses of responses from 853 parents of 1st- through 6th-grade students enrolled in an ethnically diverse metropolitan public school system in the mid-southern United States revealed that model constructs predicted significant portions of variance in parents' home- and school-based involvement even when controlling for family socioeconomic status. The predictive power of specific model constructs differed for elementary and middle school parents. Results are discussed in terms of research on parental involvement and school practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Medical students' attitudes toward radiology: comparison of matriculating and graduating students

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: To determine graduating medical students' perceptions of radiology and to document changes in their perceptions since they entered medical school. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A survey questionnaire was distributed to 213 graduating students. Questions were similar to those answered by the same group of students as they entered medical school nearly 4 years earlier. RESULTS: The survey was anonymously completed by 140 students. Seventy percent of students changed their choice of medical specialty since entering medical school. Factors with a major or important influence on specialty choice included intellectual excitement (96%), high patient contact (86%), opportunity for a good family life (72%), and regular hours (57%). Radiology was perceived to be a well-paid (89%), "high-tech" (86%) specialty with a healthy lifestyle (82%), regular hours (99%), and good family life (92%), but it was not perceived to offer high patient contact (1%) and was intellectually exciting to only 33% of students. This perception was unchanged from freshman year. CONCLUSIONS: This 4-year longitudinal study of a medical student class documents surprisingly little change in the perception of radiology throughout medical school. High patient contact and intellectual excitement, both factors of major or important influence on specialty choice, were thought to be lacking in radiology.     

Discerning direct and mediated effects of ecological structures and processes on adolescents' educational outcomes.

This short-term longitudinal study examined the relations among family and school characteristics, family-level processes (youth perceptions of parent-adolescent interactions), school-level processes (youth perceptions of school belonging, school climate), adolescents' school engagement, and later academic performance. Participants were an ethnically diverse, urban sample of 1,120 9th-grade students (M age = 14.6 years). The structural characteristics of families and schools influenced the proximal processes that occurred therein, and these proximal processes, in turn, influenced students' proximal (i.e., engagement) and distal educational outcomes (i.e., grades in school). Moreover, the structural characteristics of families and schools influenced proximal and distal outcomes indirectly through their influence on the proximal processes. The multimediated ecological model suggested that intervening at the process level may be a successful means of improving both adolescents' engagement in school and their subsequent school performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in adolescent sexual attitudes: the influence of individual and family factors

The present study, continuing a recent trend, examined multiple influences on adolescent sexuality, focusing on sexual attitudes because of their influence on sexual behavior. Empirical analyses were based on a nonrandom availability sample of 1,587 public high school students and 1,372 parents. Multiple regression analyses were conducted in three phases to elaborate models for adolescent attitudes about premarital sexual intercourse; separate models were developed for females and males. First, a regression model was developed that featured individual adolescent characteristics (e.g., age, gender, locus of control, self-esteem, and religious participation) as predictor variables. A second regression model was developed that included family characteristics (e.g., number of siblings, number of parents in home, communication with mother and father, family strengths, parent contribution to sexuality education, parental discussion of sexual values, and the sexual attitudes of mother and father). In the final step, multiple regression was conducted on both individual and family factors. Results indicated that (1) the integrated model had more explanatory power than either separate model, and (2) females were influenced by more family factors and males were influenced by more individual factors.     

Violence toward a family member, angry adult conflict, and child adjustment difficulties: Relations in families with 1- to 3-year-old children.

In this study, the authors examined whether witnessing violence toward a family member increases the risk for adjustment difficulties among children in the 1- to 3-year age range, beyond the risk attributable to witnessing nonviolent, angry adult conflict. Participants were 1,152 caregivers of 1- to 3-year-old children, randomly selected from birth records and recruited from the community. Caregivers indicated whether their children had witnessed violence toward a family member and/or angry adult conflict. They also completed a comprehensive measure of child adjustment difficulties. Exposure to violence toward a family member and exposure to angry adult conflict were each uniquely associated with increased risk for adjustment problems. These results emerged after accounting for pertinent demographic variables and for caregiver distress variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)