"Temporal encoding in fear conditioning revealed through associative reflex facilitation": Correction to Lindquist and Brown (2004).

Reports an error in "Temporal Encoding in Fear Conditioning Revealed Through Associative Reflex Facilitation" by Derick H. Lindquist and Thomas H. Brown (Behavioral Neuroscience, 2004[Apr], Vol 118[2], 395-402). The article contained several errors. On page 396, second paragraph, the sentence beginning on line 6 should read as follows: "Having a stable baseline is critical for studies of reflex facilitation because the experimental designs invariably entail repetitive CR testing, if only to achieve reasonable statistical power (see Choi et al., 2001b; Lindquist & Brown, 2004)." On page 400, the first heading should read as follows: "Comparison of New and Old Reflex Facilitation Procedures." On page 400, the first sentence under the abovementioned heading should read as follows: "We decided not to use the original measure of reflex facilitation, developed by J. S. Brown et al. (1951), because it suffers from severe interpretational limitations, elaborated in detail elsewhere (Choi et al., 2001b; Leaton & Cranney, 1990; Lindquist & Brown, 2004)." (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2004-12681-016.) Temporal encoding in Pavlovian fear conditioning was examined through conditional facilitation of the short-latency (Rl) component of the rat eyeblink reflex. Rats were fear-conditioned to a tone conditional stimulus (CS) with either a 3- or 9-s interstimulus interval (ISI) between CS onset and the onset of the grid-shock unconditional stimulus (US). Rl facilitation was tested over 2 days, in counterbalanced order, at a latency of 3 s and 9 s from CS onset. CS-produced Rl facilitation, the conditional response (CR), was 3-4 times larger when the test latency equaled the conditioning ISI. These results, coupled with the known neurophysiology of Rl facilitation, suggest that this CR could disclose differences in the time course of CS-generated output from the amygdala when driven by cortical versus subcortical CS-CR pathways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporally specific extinction of conditioned responses in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) nictitating membrane preparation.

Extinguishing a conditioned response (CR) has entailed separating the conditioned stimulus (CS) from the unconditioned stimulus (US). This research reveals that elimination of the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) nictitating membrane response occurred during continuous CS-US pairings. Initial training contained a mixture of 2 CS-US interstimulus intervals (ISIs): 200 ms and 1,200 ms. The CRs showed double peaks, one for each ISI. When 1 ISI was removed, its CR peak showed the hallmarks of extinction: a decline across sessions, spontaneous recovery between sessions, and rapid reacquisition when the absent ISI was reintroduced. These results support real-time models of conditioning that segment the CS into microstimuli while challenging theories that rely on contextual control, US representations, CS processing, and response inhibition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time course of cardiac conditioned responses in restrained rats as a function of the trace CS–US interval.

Two experiments aimed at understanding the temporal characteristics of trace-conditioned heart-rate responses to a 0.5-s tone (conditioned stimulus [CS]) in restrained rats. A CS paired with a tail-shock (unconditioned stimulus [UCS]) elicited lasting bradycardiac responses. The magnitude and extinction rate of conditioned responses (CR) were independent of the CS–US interval (interstimulus interval [ISI], 3 s to 20 s). Unreinforced test trials were analyzed for CR topography. Responding was delayed in groups with longer ISIs, but CR latencies, peak and decay times were not proportional to the ISI Response peaks tended to cluster either about 6 s after CS onset, or about 10 s with a slow decay, depending on the ISI. The authors postulated 2 components of auditory stimulus traces involved in cardiac conditioning, maximally active 6 s and 10 s respectively after CS onset. The topography of the CR could be constrained to combinations of associative strength and instantaneous activity of these 2 components. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporally massed CS presentations generate more fear extinction than spaced presentations.

Rodent fear conditioning models both excitatory learning and the pathogenesis of human anxiety, whereas extinction of conditional fear is a paradigm of inhibitory learning and the explicit model for behavior therapy. Many studies support a general learning rule for acquisition: Temporally spaced training is more effective than massed training. The authors asked whether this rule applies to extinction of conditional fear in mice. The authors find that both short- and long-term fear extinction are greater with temporally massed presentations of the conditional stimulus (CS). The data also indicate that once CS presentations are sufficiently massed to initiate, or "induce," extinction learning, further CS presentations are more effective when spaced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time and stimulus specificity in extinction of the conditioned nictitating membrane response in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

The present experiments demonstrated that, in the rabbit nictitating membrane preparation, a conditioned response (CR) can be selectively eliminated in one portion of a conditioned stimulus (CS) while it is still paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US). Rabbits were initially trained with two stimuli (tone, light). Each was paired with the US by using a mixture of two CS-US interstimulus intervals (ISIs): 200 ms and 1,200 ms in Experiment 1; 150 ms and 500 ms in Experiment 2. The CRs showed double peaks, one for each ISI. Subsequently, one CS (A) was trained with only the longer ISI, whereas the other CS (B) continued to be trained with both ISIs. Consequently, the CR peak based on the shorter ISI disappeared for CSA but not for CSB. The later CR peaks during both CSA and CSB were maintained. These results support time-based models of conditioning. Implications for proposed mechanisms of extinction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time-specific extinction and recovery of the rabbit's (Oryctolagus cuniculus) conditioned nictitating membrane response using mixed interstimulus intervals.

Extinguishing a conditioned response (CR) has entailed separating the conditioned stimulus (CS) from the unconditioned stimulus (US). This research reveals that elimination of the rabbit nictitating membrane response occurred during continuous CS-US pairings. Initial training contained a mixture of 2 CS-US interstimulus intervals (ISIs), 150 ms and 500 ms. The CRs showed double peaks, one for each ISI. When the 150-ms ISI was removed, its CR peak showed 2 hallmarks of extinction: a decline across sessions and spontaneous recovery between sessions. When a further stage of training was introduced with a distinctive CS using the 150-ms ISI, occasional tests of the original, extinguished CS revealed another hallmark of extinction, specifically, strong recovery of the 150-ms peak. These results support both abstract and cerebellar models of conditioning that encode the CS into a cascade of microstimuli, while challenging theories of extinction that rely on changes in CS processing, US representations, and contextual control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Ontogeny of Human Learning in Delay, Long-Delay, and Trace Eyeblink Conditioning.

The ontogeny of associative learning in delay (750-ms conditional stimulus [CS], 650-ms interstimulus interval [ISI]), long-delay (1,350-ms CS, 1,250-ms ISI), and trace (750-ms CS, 500-ms trace interval, 1,250-ms ISI) eyeblink conditioning was examined in 5-month-old human infants and adults. Infants and adults showed different acquisition rates but reached equivalent asymptotes of conditional responses (CRs) in standard delay conditioning. In long-delay and trace conditions, infants exhibited less robust conditioning than adults and minimal ability to appropriately time CRs. During infancy, the ISI, rather than the conditioning procedure, predicted rate and effectiveness of CRs. These findings suggest that higher order cognitive abilities begin emerging early in development. Across ontogeny, however, there are changes in the limits and parameters that support associative learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"The effects of neurotoxic hippocampal lesions on two effects of context after fear extinction": Errata.

Reports an error in the original article by R. J. Frohardt et al (Behavioral Neuroscience, 2000 [Apr], Vol 114[2], 227-240). On page 229, there is an error in the Method section. The second full sentence on that page should read: Neurotoxic lesions of hippocampus were produced by injections of a mixture of 5.0 μg ibotenic acid and 5.0 μg NMDA per 0.5 ml of normal saline. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 2000-15286-001): Three conditioned suppression experiments with rats examined the role of the hippocampus in 2 effects of context after extinction. Reinstatement is the context-specific recovery of fear to an extinguished conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs following independent presentations of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), after extinction. Renewal is the recovery of fear when the CS is presented in the context in which it was conditioned, after extinction in a different context. Results indicated that neurotoxic lesions of the hippocampus, performed before conditioning, abolished reinstatement, which depends on context-UCS associations, but not renewal, which does not. This dissociation is not the result of differences in the recentness of context learning that ordinarily governs the two effects… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal victimization patterns and psychopathology among Latino women: Results from the SALAS study.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 3(1) of Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy (see record 2010-26899-001). There were citation errors in the last sentence of the first column of text on page 9, and a reference was omitted from the reference list. The sentence should have read: “This result is consistent with other work that has found support for the anxious and dissociative reaction associated with trauma among Latinos and how it may relate to “ataque de nervios” (Hinton, Chong, Pollack, Barlow, & McNally, 2008; Lewis-Fernandez et al., 2002; Schechter et al., 2000; Tolin, Robinson, Gaztambide, Horowitz, & Blank, 2007).] [Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in of Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy (see record 2010-26899-001). In the original article there were citation errors in the last sentence of the first column of text on page 9, and a reference was omitted from the reference list. The sentence should have read: “This result is consistent with other work that has found support for the anxious and dissociative reaction associated with trauma among Latinos and how it may relate to “ataque de nervios” (Hinton, Chong, Pollack, Barlow, & McNally, 2008; Lewis-Fernandez et al., 2002; Schechter et al., 2000; Tolin, Robinson, Gaztambide, Horowitz, & Blank, 2007).] Research on the victimization of Latino women and the subsequent psychological impact has been limited by focusing on individual forms of victimization, primarily partner violence or sexual assault. Another deficiency includes mainly using convenience and/or geographically restricted samples, which impacts the generalizability of the results. To overcome these research limitations, the Sexual Assault Among Latinas (SALAS) study aimed to evaluate the broader scope of victimization among Latino women. The study surveyed a national sample of 2,000 Latino women using random digit dial methodology. Women were asked about various forms of victimization in childhood and adulthood including physical assaults, sexual assaults, stalking, threats, and witnessed violence, as well as psychological symptomatology including depression, anxiety, anger, and dissociation. This analysis found that victimized women were more likely to experience some form of polyvictimization and/or revictimization throughout their lives, with only 36% of victimized women experiencing one form of victimization in childhood or adulthood alone. Furthermore, multiple victimization experiences significantly increased the proportion of women who experienced psychological distress symptoms in the clinical range. For almost all evaluated symptoms, the multiple forms of victimization or varying victimization patterns significantly predicted clinical levels of psychological distress over any specific form or single incident of victimization. The results suggest that victimized Latino women experience multiple forms of victimization and that the evaluation of a broader spectrum of victimization better accounts for pathological symptomatology. Clinical implications for Latino women and future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioned-reflex facilitation in young and older adults

Young (18-30 years) and elderly (63-88 years) human subjects received 70 trials of single-cue classical eyeblink conditioning (paired group), or 70 explicitly unpaired presentations of the tone conditioned stimulus (CS) and airpuff unconditioned stimulus (unpaired group). Before and after conditioning, reflex-eliciting white noise and corneal airpuff stimuli were presented alone or paired with the CS to investigate the effects of conditioning on eyeblink reflex amplitude. The results showed increased conditioned responses in the paired group compared to the unpaired group for the young but not the elderly subjects. There was, however, evidence of conditioned facilitation of noise-elicited reflexes in both young and elderly subjects. These data indicate that conditioned facilitation of the startle reflex may be a sensitive indicator of classical conditioning processes in human subjects.     

Discriminative conditioning with different CS–US intervals produces temporally differentiated conditioned responses in the two eyes of the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

The conditioned eyeblink response (CR) in rabbits is lateralized to the eye targeted by the unconditioned stimulus (US). However, a contralateral component has been reported during concurrent discriminative conditioning of the two eyes. The authors investigated CRs produced by both eyes during conditioning with 2 different interstimulus intervals (ISIs) in which a short conditioned stimulus (CS) was paired with a US to the left eye and a long CS was paired with a US to the right eye. Whether the 2 CSs were more or less similar (or identical), the short CS produced short-latency CRs in the left eye, whereas the long CS produced long-latency CRs in the right eye. The contralateral responses to a CS trained at one ISI were separable into temporal corollaries of the ipsilateral response (suggesting a bilaterality of the CR) versus those to a CS trained at another ISI (indicating generalization between the CSs). The results indicate that the neuronal substrates subserving CRs of the two eyes involve not only a dominant lateralization but also some avenue of bilaterality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Gender differences in interaction style and influence": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by L. L. Carli (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1989, [Apr] Vol 56[4], 565–576). On page 567, the 3rd sentence in the Procedure section should read, "Half of the subjects were paired with same-sex partners and half with opposite-sex partners, resulting in 16 female pairs, 16 male pairs, and 32 mixed-sex pairs.' On page 568, the equation at the bottom of the left-hand column should read as follows: (Mfs?–?Mms?–?Mfm?+?Mmm)/((2MSe?+ &2MS′e)(1/n))?. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1989-25837-001.) Observed 128 Ss in mixed- and same-sex dyads to examine effects of interaction on sex differences in influence. Ss discussed 2 topics on which they disagreed. During the 2nd discussion, 1 S in each pair was told to influence the other. Ss showed more agreement and positive social behavior when paired with a woman and more disagreement and task behavior when paired with a man. Although… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The ontogeny of interstimulus interval (ISI) discrimination of the conditioned eyeblink response in rats.

Discrimination of the eyeblink conditioned response (CR) between conditioned stimuli (CSs) of different durations and modalities was examined across development in rats. Interstimulus interval (ISI) discrimination was evident at Postnatal Days 23-34 in Experiment 1, and earlier CR peak latencies and enhanced CR amplitudes were seen to the long CS in the ISI discrimination group relative to a control group receiving the short CS without reinforcement. Experiment 2 showed that early CR peak latencies and enhanced CR amplitudes to the long CS in the ISI discrimination group were due to associative pairing of the short CS and unconditioned stimulus. Experiment 3 demonstrated ISI discrimination in adults that was improved relative to younger subjects, but with no enhancement of CR amplitude to the long CS in the ISI discrimination group. Cerebellar cortical maturation may influence the ontogeny of CR timing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention and facilitation: Converging information versus inadvertent reading in Stroop task performance.

Disagreement exists about whether color–word Stroop facilitation is caused by converging information (e.g., Cohen et al., 1990; Roelofs, 2003) or inadvertent reading (MacLeod & MacDonald, 2000). Four experiments tested between these hypotheses by examining Stroop effects on response time (RT) both within and between languages. Words cannot be read aloud to produce facilitation between languages. Dutch–English bilingual participants named color patches while trying to ignore Dutch or English color words presented at a wide range of preexposure and postexposure stimulus onset asynchronies. The color patches were named in Dutch (Experiments 1 and 2) or English (Experiments 3 and 4). In all experiments, Stroop facilitation and interference effects were obtained in mean RTs with similar time courses within and between languages. Facilitation was generally present throughout the entire RT distributions. These results suggest that Stroop interference and facilitation have a common locus within and between languages, supporting the converging information hypothesis of Stroop facilitation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Facilitation of instrumental behavior by a Pavlovian appetitive conditioned stimulus". Correction to Lovibond.

Reports an error in the article, "Facilitation of Instrumental Behavior by a Pavlovian Appetitive Conditioned Stimulus" by Peter F. Lovibond (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 1983, Jul, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 225-247)." Part of the second sentence on page 227 was omitted, and the correction is presented here. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1984-08705-001.) In Exp I, 16 New Zealand white rabbits were trained to perform an instrumental head-raising response for sucrose reward. A jaw-movement CR was established to a 2-sec CS by pairing it with sucrose; a control stimulus was unpaired with sucrose. Instrumental responding maintained by a VI 40-sec schedule was enhanced during 10-sec presentations of the paired, but not the unpaired, CS. Responding on a VR 15 schedule was unaffected except on trials on which the pre-CS baseline response rate was low; in such cases the paired CS caused a long-lasting acceleration of responding. Noncontingent presentation of the sucrose reinforcer itself briefly suppressed responding but had no long-term effect. In Exp II (6 Ss), a CS that had been conditioned at a 10-sec duration produced the same pattern of effects as in Exp I, indicating that facilitation resulted from CS presentation rather than from the frustrative effects of nonreinforcement of the CS. In Exp III (16 Ss), an inhibitory CS blocked facilitation by the excitatory CS but did not itself affect instrumental responding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Errata.

Reports an error in "Alpha-adrenergic receptors in hypothalamus for the suppression of feeding behavior by satiety" by D. L. Margules (Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology, 1970[Oct], Vol 73[1], 1-12; see record 1971-03588-001). On page 3, paragraph 1 of the Method section, the angle of implantation of cannulas was 6° from the perpendicular; in paragraph 2 of the Method section, the following sentence was omitted: All rats were maintained on a reversed dark-light cycle (lights off at 0800 hr. and on at 2000 hr. EST) and were drugged in the dark. On page 10, paragraph 6, line 10 of the Discussion section, "abolishes" should read "enhances." In "Precocious mating in male rats following treatment with androgen or estrogen" by Michael J. Baum (Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology, 1972[Mar], Vol. 78[3], 356-367; see record 1972-22393-001), on page 367 the date of receipt should read August 24, 1970. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Stimulus Selection in Eyelid Conditioning in the Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)": Erratum.

Reports an error in the original article by Perry S. Kinkaide (Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1974[Jun], 86[6], 1132-1140). The lower portion of Figure 3 on page 1138 should have represented the last two conditions for Group T as Test AV and reTest AV. The last sentence of the caption should have been deleted. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1979-05368-001) Conducted 2 experiments, using a total of 24 female New Zealand white rabbits, in which a "visual" stimulus (V), either flashes or electrical stimulation of the optic chiasma, was reinforced in compound with a differentially reinforced (CS+) or nonreinforced (CS-) nonvisual stimulus. Visual stimulus control of conditioned eyeblink activity was acquired if V was reinforced in compound with CS- but was "blocked" when reinforced in compound with CS+. Both effects were demonstrable within Ss and were independent of the method of visual stimulation. Extinction and backward conditioning of chiasmic stimulation preceded retraining of 6 Ss. The establishment and blocking of visual stimulus control were again evident within Ss. The data are interpretable in terms of either attentional or associative theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflex facilitation during eyeblink conditioning and subsequent interpositus nucleus inactivation in the rabbit (Orycotolagus cuniculus).

In eyeblink conditioning in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), not only is a conditioned response (CR) acquired, but also the original reflex is modified as a function of training. In Experiment 1, by comparing unconditioned responses in unpaired and paired groups, 3 types of reflex facilitation were distinguished. One type was linked to exposure to the unconditioned stimuli (USs) and/or experimental setting. The 2nd type was related to the formation of the memory trace for conditioned eyeblink. The 3rd type was linked to the conditioned stimulus immediately preceding the US in the paired group. In Experiment 2, reversible inactivation of the interpositus nucleus (IPN) abolished the CR and reduced the CR-related reflex facilitation, indicating that the latter depends on the plasticity of the IPN. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioning the unconditioned response: Modification of the rabbit's (Oryctolagus cuniculus) unconditioned nictitating membrane response.

Conditioning-specific reflex modification (CRM) occurs when classical conditioning modifies responding to a unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS) in the absence of a conditioned stimulus (CS). Three experiments monitored rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) nictitating membrane unconditioned responses to 5 intensities and 4 durations of periorbital electrical stimulation before and after CS or UCS manipulation. CRM occurred after 12 days of CS-UCS pairings but not following unpaired CS/UCS presentations or restraint. CRM survived CS-alone and CS/UCS-unpaired extinction of the conditioned response (CR) but not presentations of the UCS alone, although CRs remained intact. Thus, CRs could be weakened without eliminating CRM and CRM could be weakened without eliminating CRs. Data indicate CRM is a reliable, associative effect that is more than a generalized CR and may not be explained by habituation, stimulus generalization, contextual conditioning, or bidirectional conditioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Prigatano, Parsons, Wright, Levin, and Hawryluk.

Reports an error in the original article "Neuropsychological test performance in mildly hypoxemic patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease" by George P. Prigatano et al. (Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 1983[Feb.] Vol 51[1] 108-116). On page 116, the reference Rennick, P. M, should read as follows: Lewis, R. R., & Rennick, P. M. Manual for the Repeatable Cognitive-Perceptual- Motor Battery. Grosse Pointe Park, Mich.: Axon, 1979. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1983-13068-001) Previous research has demonstrated neuropsychological deficits in moderately to severely hypoxemic, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients. The present article reports on the neuropsychological functioning of mildly hypoxemic COPD patients. 100 patients (mean age 61.5 yrs) and 25 controls (mean age 59.6 yrs) matched on relevant variables were given extensive neuropsychological tests including the WAIS, Wechsler Memory Scale, and Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. Mild neuropsychological impairment was observed in the COPD Ss, with overall indexes of neuropsychological dysfunction correlating with resting partial pressure of oxygen. Depression and motivation to perform could not account for the results. Long-term reduced oxygen supply to the brain may account for these observed deficits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)