Energy production from biogas in the Italian countryside: Policies and organizational models

In recent years, Italy has witnessed a proliferation of agricultural biogas plants. This article argues that institutional factors have played an important role in their diffusion. It describes the state and evolution of agricultural biogas in Italy, and then investigates the extent to which institutional pressures have been influential in shaping organizational models of biogas production. It finds that the dominance of one particular organizational model is the result of an isomorphic process in which a monopolistic market, legal structures, and subsidies play a role. The prevalence of this organizational model, however, does not lead to the effective use of biogas production, and furthermore it results in low environmental efficiency. For a more sustainable development of bioenergy, Italian policy-makers should reform the existing institutional framework by reorganizing subsidies, liberalizing the management of gas grids, and involving farmers in local projects.     

美国的能源战略及其启示

美国能源战略的基本宗旨是确保能源安全,减少石油进口,保护环境．维护经济繁荣与国家安全。美国（2005年能源政策法》的内容主要集中在以下方面：节约能源,提高能源利用效率;扩大可再生能源的生产和使用,保障能源供应;增加财政拨款,促进能源科学研究;改进汽车燃油利用状况。2007年美国通过了《能源独立和安全法案》,其主要内容包括：规定了汽车工业的能耗标准;推广可再生能源,减少对石油进口的依赖;提高能源使用效率,制订更为严格的能效标准。2009年美国众议院又通过《2009美国清洁能源与安全法案》。其主要内容为：首次对企业的二氧化碳等温室气体排放做出限制;要求逐步提高来自风能、太阳能等清洁能源的电力供应;对排放指标、分配额度作出了规定,并引入排放配额交易制度。综合来看,美国出台的主要政策法规都有各自配套的激励措施和投资计划。美国的能源战略对我国具有以下启示：应从战略高度构建完整统一的国家能源法制体系,以确保国家能源安全：要根据国情确立能源安全的长期目标和近期目标;中美两国应继续加强新能源领域的合作,以取得优势互补、互利双赢的效果;我国应利用清洁发展机制,争取早日进入世界碳交易市场。     

US climate change legislation

Despite the on-going intransigence of the Bush Administration with respect to addressing global climate change, there are growing indications that the issue will be put front and centre in American public policy debate through a series of legal actions now pending before U.S. federal courts. While clearly the Bush Administration has a veritable strangle hold on any legislation or US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) regulations that might address climate change, what it has relatively little influence over is how federal courts might deal with this issue. Don C. Smith assesses what this might mean for US climate change policy.     

美国能源之星计划最新动态分析

能源之星计划是美国用能产品节能管理措施的重要组成部分,对世界各国的节能法规和标准产生了重要影响,在一定程度上,产品获得能源之星认证已成为进入发达国家市场的一个通行证。能源之星计划目前覆盖商业设备、家用电器、办公室设备、照明产品、房屋建材产品5大类60类终端耗能产品。2009年,新颁布了电视机和LED灯等5类产品标准,包括洗碗机、洗衣机、计算机、显示器等13类产品的标准陆续生效,这些新的标准将对我国相关产品出口到美国造成一定影响。生产商获取能源之星认证需要3个步骤:确定产品是否已符合或者能够符合能源之星标准;制造商成为能源之星合作伙伴;履行能源之星合作伙伴的义务。美国能源之星计划与我国能效标准、欧盟EuP/ErP指令三者相比,能源之星的要求较其他两者更严,规定的技术项目也更多。相比之下,我国能效标准水平较低,仍存在提升的空间,同时在实施过程中尚存在法律法规不够健全、行业自律性差、公众能效意识较低等一些现实障碍。     

美国新能源和可再生能源立法模式

美国在其新能源和可再生能源立法过程中,将单一法案与综合性法案相结合、专门法案与配套法案相结合,尤其是大型综合性法案是美国能源立法的一大特色。大型综合性法案的特点是兼收并蓄、自成一体,它是美国执行国家能源政策的重要渠道,完善能源立法的重要手段,推进能源立法的重要平台。理解大型综合性法案需要以美国独特的政治、经济和文化体制为背景,进行换位思考。     

The US Energy Information Administration and coal data

The newly formed US Department of Energy contains a quasi-independent Energy Information Administration charged with improving and augmenting the US energy data base. Given the importance of reliable data to the formulation of energy policy, this new organization should revise and update the various data collection systems it will inherit. One such effort is a series on coal distribution data, on which this communication focuses.     

Energy utilization in maize production

Average physical inputs in maize cultivation in three districts of Haryana (North India) have been transformed into energy units and compared with the energy outputs of grain and byproducts. The chief inputs were in the form of farm yard manure (FYM), traditional farm equipment, tractor and fuel, followed by irrigation and chemical fertilizers. Detailed data of physical inputs were collected from 31 individual farm units of Ambala district, ranging from 0.41 to 3.24 ha. Six of these farms showed extremes of size, tractor use, fertilizer application, FYM inputs, irrigation, as well as yields of grain and byproducts. Data from these farms were analysed in terms of energy utilization. Energy use efficiency ranged from 0.06 to 0.28 for grain and from 0.29 to 1.16 for total produce. The data suggest that grain production can be increased and energy utilization improved by minimizing the use of FYM and by increased use of chemical fertilizers and irrigation.     

Energy demand and conservation in US residential and commercial buildings Impact of the US national energy plan

This paper evaluates the impact of the US National Energy Plan on energy demand in US commercial and residential buildings. Following a brief historical review of energy use patterns in US buildings, estimates are presented of how the National Energy Plan would affect the sector in terms of fuel expenditures and investment in energy using equipment and structures. The analysis is based on economic-engineering models of energy demand which are currently being used by the US Department of Energy to evaluate conservation programmes. The demand models incorporate behavioural as well as technological determinants and are sufficiently disaggregated to allow consideration of individual components of the National Energy Plan.     

拟到太空摄取太阳能

美国一家领先的电力公司正在积极支持一项有望将科幻变为现实的计划。该计划将在外层空间设立太阳能电站，再将转化成的电能传回地球。     

The decontrol of US oil production

Us domestic oil reserves and production levels have been declining, but the quantity of oil available on world markets for export to the USA is also likely to decrease in the future - as a result of declining world reserves and increased conservation by the oil exporting nations. President Carter's decontrol plan is therefore aimed at stimulating oil production within the USA as well as less wasteful petroleum use. This article assesses the effectiveness of the decontrol plan in the light of recent trends in US and world oil production and reserves. It concludes that the Carter plan could need substantial revision since its effect may be to reduce current US production in favour of higher prices after decontrol.     

美国节能管理工作特点及对我国的启示

本文比较系统地分析了美国节能管理工作的主要特点,并研究了美国的节能管理模式对我国推动节能工作的启示。文中首先介绍了美国推动节能工作的主要机构,然后从最低能耗标准、能效标识、节能工作参与群体的市场定位、基于市场的节能激励机制及政府机构节能等方面详细阐述了美国节能政策制定和实施的基本特点,并结合我国的国情分析了美国节能管理模式对我国节能工作的启示,最后提出了相关政策建议。     

Energy production and sustainable energy policies in Turkey

Turkey's demand for energy and electricity is increasing rapidly. Turkey is heavily dependent on expensive imported energy resources that place a big burden on the economy and air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern in the country. Turkey's energy production meets nearly 28% of its total primary energy consumption. As would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local, regional and global levels. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey's carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions have grown along with its energy consumption. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important renewable sources are hydropower, biomass, geothermal, solar and wind. Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of these renewable energy sources. Turkey has a great and ever-intensifying need for power and water supplies and they also have the greatest remaining hydro potential. Hydropower and especially small hydropower are emphasized as Turkey's renewable energy sources. Turkey's hydro electric potential can meet 33–46% of its electric energy demand in 2020 and this potential may easily and economically be developed. This paper presents a review of the potential and utilization of the renewable energy sources in Turkey.     

Climate change policy and international trade: Policy considerations in the US

Significant recent attention, in both research and policy realms, has been given to the intersection of international trade and global climate change. Trade presents challenges to climate policy through carbon leakage and competitiveness concerns, but also potential solutions through the use of cooperative trade agreements, technology transfer, or carbon tariffs against recalcitrant nations. This study examines how trade may affect climate policy in the US and specifically examines the use of carbon tariffs as suggested by recent bills before the US Congress. We argue that even if such actions are legal at the World Trade Organization, they are probably not necessary to protect industrial competitiveness in the traditional sense, could cover only a small proportion of total embodied emissions in trade, and may in fact be counterproductive at a moment when global cooperation is desperately needed. While political agreement may necessitate at least the threat of carbon tariffs, cooperative agreements such as global sectoral agreements, technology sharing, etc. could be more productive in the short term.     

Energy commodity uncertainties and the systematic risk of US industries

We investigate the impact of energy commodity uncertainties on the systematic risk of twelve industries in the US. The dynamic betas using the dynamic conditional correlation – generalized auto-regressive conditional heterosckedasticity (DCC-GARCH) model, indicate that real estate, financials, and basic materials are the high-risk industries. Notably, the systematic risk of oil and gas sector was significantly affected during the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) and the Shale Oil Revolution (SOR) sub-periods. Our results provide convincing evidence of the positive impact of energy uncertainties on basic material, basic resources, financials, oil and gas, and real estate. On the other hand, we identify the negative impact on consumer goods, consumer services, health care, industrials, and technology industries. These findings have implications for investment and risk management.     

Energy policy, the dollar and the US political system

What has prevented the USA from formulating an effective long-term energy policy? In this article R.J. Friedland provides an explanation in terms of the interaction of two decisive factors: the dollar's position as the main reserve currency within the international monetary system; and certain distinctive features of the US political system which bias it towards responding to difficult issues on a short-term basis.     

美国能源独立和页岩气革命的深刻影响

美国能源独立的实质是避免国外某些因素对其能源安全、经济安全乃至国家安全产生强烈影响,增大能源供应的自主性,特别是要减少局势动荡地区的石油进口。为此,长期以来美国采取了综合措施,包括节能节油、发展新能源、增加国内油气产量等,从而使能源消费总量和石油消费量增速降低,为能源独立奠定了基础。随之迎来的页岩气革命,使美国油气产量快速增长,油气进口量、进口依存度大幅下降,同时来自中东等动荡地区的进口份额大减。页岩气革命提高了非常规油气的地位,使之在中长期的未来有可能与常规油气平起平坐,甚至超过它而居主要地位。同时还开拓了传统油气勘探和油气地质学创新发展新途径,改变了世界地缘油气格局和版图,为能源构成改善和环保开拓了新路径。另外还必须看到,更自主、更廉价的能源供应不仅对美国经济恢复做出了现实贡献,有可能促进美率先走出衰退,而且使其在"再工业化"、在迎接第三次工业革命的历史进程中居于优势地位。美国能源独立和页岩气革命的进程对我国能源战略有重大启示,我们应更强调节能和需求侧管理,贯彻多元发展和因地制宜的战略思想,常规和非常规油气并举且大力推进页岩油气开拓,而经济体制改革是这些目标实现的前提和保障。     

Energy crop production costs in the EU

The objective of this study was to calculate indicative ranges of production costs and assess the main sources of cost for a number of energy crops, both annual and perennial, on a regional level in Europe. The production costs were calculated in terms of the economic compensation required by the farmer in order to grow the crop, and therefore include not only the cost of cultivation, but also the costs of land and risk, which are often omitted in production cost calculations. The cost of land was calculated as the opportunity cost based on the production of cereals. Thus, higher food prices lead to higher land costs, which in turn lead to higher energy crop production costs. The analysis was performed for three cases with different assumptions concerning yields and production cost reductions resulting from scale (total cultivation area in the region), and learning effects. The calculated energy crop production costs were found to be consistently lowest for short-rotation coppice (SRC) crops and highest for annual straw crops. The production costs of SRC crops were calculated to be about 4–5 € GJ⁻¹ under present conditions and 3–4 € GJ⁻¹ under improved future conditions. The production costs for perennial grasses were calculated to be about 6–7 € GJ⁻¹ and 5–6 € GJ⁻¹ under present and improved future conditions, respectively. The production costs for annual straw crops were estimated to be 6–8 € GJ⁻¹ under present conditions with small potential for cost reductions in the future.     

Energy and resources as production factors in process industries

It is shown that, when the mean productivity of some factors, such as energy or materials, is upperly bounded (a condition usually arising in energy production or in the process industries where energy takes part in physico-chemical processes), the production function may not be convex and, under some further conditions, is concave. Consequences of this model on the economics of energy savings are examined, and it is shown that energy savings may be considered at three levels: in the short run, by action on labour factors: in the medium run, by investment and action on labour factors; in the long run, by technological innovation, investment in new technologies and action on labour factors. Empirical findings along these lines are thus confirmed.