Anthropometric characteristics of obese women before and after weight reduction

Anthropometric changes in 53 premenopausal obese women, 25-45 year-old, after an obesity treatment, were analyzed. Before and immediately after treatment, midarm, abdomen, waist, hip, midthigh and midcalf circumferences, as well as tricipital, bicipital, suprailiac, subscapular, abdominal and calf skinfold thickness were measured. The later averaged over percentil 75th. All final measurements, except midcalf circumference, abdomen/waist and hip/midthigh indexes, were significantly lowers as compared with the initial values. Body weight decreased on average 8.9 kg, and skinfold thickness mean fell below the 75th percentile. Percentage body fat decreased 18.3%, and body mass index 11%. Initial principal component analysis results, exhibited three chief characteristics of obesity: general adiposity; trunk vs. extremity fatness, and upper vs. lower fatness. Body fat distribution pattern and body composition were modified as a result of the treatment. Therefore, the morbidity risk associated with them, was substantially reduced.     

Method for calculation in personal computers of expected values of anthropometric variables on body composition

A program to incorporate in any personal computer (microprocessor) with BASIC language, is herein proposed. This enables calculation of the expected values (50 percentile), and the range of "allowable" variables (3 and 97 percentiles) of the bicipital, tricipital and subscapular cutaneous skinfold thickness, and of the arm's circumference in 6 to 14-year-old boys and girls. It is easily modifiable so as to apply it to other population sectors, and also makes an anthropometric diagnosis. The program facilitates the handling and interpretation of some current biometric variables related to body composition, which are necessary for the full analysis of the actual nutritional status, both of individuals and of population groups.     

Standardization and reliability of anthropometric measurements for population surveys

In this paper we describe the standardization and reliability of anthropometric measurements carried out by five population survey anthropometrists. For the standardization of anthropometric measurement techniques, one expert anthropometrist conducted two theoretical and practical workshops, in September 2006 and March 2007, where the intra- and interobserver technical errors of measurement (TEMs) were assessed, respectively. For the intraobserver assessment of anthropometric measurements, we studied 121 schoolchildren on two different days. For interobserver assessment, we studied 22 schoolchildren that were measured, during the same period, once by each of the five anthropometrists and by an expert anthropometrist. For skinfold thickness, intraobserver TEMs in general were smaller than 1 mm; for circumferences, TEMs in general were smaller than 1 cm. For the subscapular, suprailiac and calf skinfolds, the intraobserver relative TEMs were greater than the acceptable limit for beginner anthropometrists. Intraobserver reliability for skinfold thickness was greater than 0.95 and for circumferences was greater than 0.99 in almost all cases. The results of interobserver TEMs and reliability were similar to intraobserver assessment. The anthropometrists performed better in the intraobserver relative TEMs because their values were smaller than the acceptable limit. We conclude that the anthropometrists showed a better performance after two assessments of the error of measurement. This suggests that the standardization process of anthropometric measurements was carried out with success.     

Nutritional rehabilitation and evaluation of the nutritional state. Validity of anthropometric measures for following, in hospitalized patients, the course of nutritional status and of body compartments during nutritional recovery

A population suffering from a serious form of malnutrition was examined. The effectiveness of nutritional rehabilitation is demonstrated by the statistically significant changes observed in clinical and laboratory indicators. Several anthropometric measurements related to nutritional status are also compared with total body potassium (TBK) in patients with a positive nitrogen balance during the process of nutritional rehabilitation. It is concluded that weight (W), arm circumference (AC), middle arm muscle circumference (MAMC) and skinfold thickness (ST) measures are useful, and sufficiently accurate and precise to follow the evolution of nutritional status and body compartments.     

Physical growth and menarche in Guatemalan adolescents

The relationship between anthropometric measurements and age at menarche was studied in a group of Guatemalan adolescents, from urban and rural areas. The data indicate that median age at menarche is significantly higher in Indian adolescents living in rural areas than in non-Indian, the lowest age at menarche being that of adolescents living in urban areas. The age at menarche is positively associated with anthropometric measurements (weight, arm circumference and height) and body composition (body mass index), suggesting that both physical growth and sexual maturation are interacting processes of the same phenomenon known as the development age.     

Socioeconomic level and nutritional status: a study in schoolchildren

Obesity increased in recent years at different rates among socioeconomic levels (SEL). The purpose of this study was to analyze the association between SEL and nutritional status in schoolchildren attending elementary schools in the six counties that show the highest prevalence of obesity in Santiago, Chile. Within the counties schools were stratified according to obesity and children were randomly selected from each school. Anthropometric assessment was performed in children whilst a socio-demographic survey and a 24 hour recall of food intake were applied to their mothers. We classified the sample according to SEL in two categories (higher and a lower vulnerability). The prevalence of excess weight was 51.1% (24.7% overweight and 26,4% obese) without significant differences among SEL. The most vulnerable group had lower values of body mass index, skinfold thickness, arm circumference and food intake however, these differences were not statistically significant. At the same time, these children were physically more active, showing higher use of community places to play [OR 1.91; 95% CI 1.05-3.48] and walked larger distances from houses to schools OR 6.6; CI 2.5-16.7). Thus, albeit non significant association was detected between SEL and anthropometric indicators nor with food intake, the highest vulnerable group showed a tendency to have lower values and more physical activity.     

Changes in body composition in lactating adolescent mothers

We assessed changes in body composition in lactating adolescent mothers living under unfavorable socioeconomic and sanitary conditions. A total of 17 healthy primiparous adolescents under 17 years of age attending the Maternity Hospital of the city of La Plata, Argentina, were followed at 4 time points (15 days and 3, 6 and 12 months postpartum) to assess, a) dietary intake, b) practice of physical activity, c) nutritional condition (weight, height, body mass index [BMI] according to age, and body composition by the sum of skinfold measurements), d) characteristics of lactation, and e) growth parameters of the child. The mean age of adolescents was 15.06 +/- 0.66 years (mean menarchal age, 11.59 +/- 0.80 years). All adolescents breastfed up to 12 months postpartum, and maternal milk covered above 80% the baby intake (mean 7.06 +/- 2.54 breast feeds/day). While the daily intake of nutrients by adolescent mothers was constant up to 6 months postpartum, there was a modest decrease in that of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids 15 days and 12 months postpartum. The decrease in energetic intake during the same period was significant (p < 0.05). The practice of physical activity was classified as moderate during the follow-up period. Whereas mean basal percent of fat body mass (FBM) was 29.85 +/- 2.87, and decreased significantly at 6 (27.2% +/- 3.9%; p = 0.02) and 12 (26.1% +/- 3.9%; p = 0.002) months postpartum, changes in lean body mass (LBM) were not significant. In conclusion, lactating adolescents maintained LBM, whereas weight, FBM and BMI decreased markedly from 3 months postpartum.     

Association of body segments and body composition with blood pressure in young adults

Skeletal structure and body composition may be altered permanently in response to aggressions during critical periods of growth. This increases propensity to adverse effects in adulthood. The study explored the association of anthropometric variables of body size and proportions and of body composition with systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure (BP) in young adults. We studied 166 men and 246 women age 20-34. SBP, DBP, weight, stature, sitting height, circumferences (waist, hip), breadths (biacromial, biiliac) and skinfolds (bicipital, tricipital, subscapular, suprailiac) were assessed. BMI, waist-hip ratio (WHR), waist-stature ratio, and Sigma skinfolds-stature were calculated. Pearson correlations were determined for anthropometric variables with SBP and DBP and linear regression models for SBP and DBP were developed by sex. Correlation coefficients between indicators and BP were significant, except for stature and SBP and DPB, and WHR with DBP in women; and stature with DBP, biiliac breadth and WHR with SBP, and sitting height with SBP and DPB in men. SBP and DPB were explained by weight, BMI, and biiliac breadth in multivariable analysis in women, where 15.4% and 10.8% of variance of SBP and DPB was explained. In men, SBP was explained by weight, Sigma skinfolds and WHR, and DBP by Sigma skinfolds; models explained almost 20% of SBP and DPB variance. No association was found between BP and past malnutrition indicators. Biiliac breadth, weight and BMI in women, and weight, WHR and Sigma skinfolds in men explained BP. The use of biiliac breadth in the assessment of hypertension risk in women should be explored further.     

Prevalence of thinness and excessive fatness in a group of school children of the city of Cordoba, Argentina

Findings of a nutritional evaluation study, using triceps skinfold, are reported. The study was carried out in 1,615 school-children from 5 to 12 years, pertaining to the low socioeconomic status of the city of Córdoba, Argentina. Measurements were done during the years 1983 and 1984 by Center's examiners with a Lange caliper, according to international anthropometric methodology. Interintra observer technical error was found to be within tolerance limits reported by other authors. Local standards were used to determine the prevalence of thinness and excessive fatness, by comparing them to tricep skinfold of each child, and selecting those children where this parameter presented values less than or equal to 10th percentile and fatness greater than or equal to 90th percentile. Furthermore, comparison between median triceps skinfold of the examined group, the local standards and Frisancho's norms for US population was also made. Results revealed that: a) the prevalence of thinness (19.9%) was almost twice the percentage expected for a normal population; in contrast, occurrence of excessive fatness (6.4%) was found to be below the expected value; b) prevalence of thinness was not statistically associated to age nor sex; c) frequency of excessive fatness was significantly higher in the 8-11 year-old male group (8, 9%, p much less than 0.0005) and in the girls group (10.8%), P much less than 0.005) the prevalence of fatness in girls increased with age, and figures revealed that from eight years onwards this exceeded the expected percentage, and d) median triceps skinfold of the group under study was generally below local and foreign norms. It is concluded that potential or real nutrition problems as those mentioned above, may be grossly identified using the triceps skinfold as the single anthropometric indicator.     

Prevalence and magnitude of body weight and image dissatisfaction among women in dietetics majors

Some authors have suggested that body weight dissatisfaction may be high in students majoring in dietetics. Therefore, this study was conducted to examine the extent of body weight and image dissatisfaction in a sample of women in dietetics major. Additionally, predictors of magnitude of body weight dissatisfaction were analyzed. Participants were 62 volunteers with normalweight whose mean age was 21.87 +/- 1.89 years old (non-random sample). The assessment instruments included anthropometric measurements, a somatomorphic matrix test and an eating disorders inventory (EDI-2). Data were analyzed using SPSS vs. 15.0. A larger proportion of students chose an ideal body weight lower than actual weight (67.7%) and body image with less body fat and more muscle mass than actual values (56.4%). The magnitude of body weight dissatisfaction was associated with muscle mass and body fat dissatisfaction, and with the subscale of EDI-2 "body dissatisfaction". So, from a public health standpoint, we consider important to continue working in this line of research with the aim of better understanding the extent of body weight dissatisfaction in women dietitians, and how this dissatisfaction could interfere with their professional practice.     

Tolerance and chronic acceptability of lupine (Lupinus albus var. Multolupa) flour for feeding of young adults

Cookies enriched with sweet lupin flour were tested for their acceptability and tolerance in young adults, and compared with control cookies. A number of hematological, hepatic and renal tests were performed, as well as the measurement of allergic response, in order to detect possible changes induced by lupin. The study included 31 young adults assigned to two groups which comprised males and females, with mean ages of 26 +/- 6.5, and 27 +/- 5.9 years, respectively. The protein and energy intakes of the subjects were calculated, prior to the study, using the methods of dietary history and the 24-hr recall method. The subjects were free of any abnormalities detectable by medical history, physical examination, biochemical and hematological tests. Body weight and height were measured before the beginning of the study. The ratio weight/height of the individuals was calculated using the Jelliffe's standards. The mean values for the calorie and protein intakes were 1,919 kcal (SD +/- 655) and 59.3 g (SD +/- 22.7). The calorie contents of the control and experimental cookies were 507 and 610 kcal respectively, while the protein contents were 8.4 g and 24.1 g, respectively. The body weight of subjects in both groups increased significantly during the study (P less than 0.01 and P less than 0.02). No significant changes were recorded for other anthropometric parameters, except for the tricipital skinfold (P less than 0.01). Changes observed in hematological parameters were judged to be unrelated to lupin flour. The acceptability and tolerance to high levels of lupin flour were good. The above-mentioned results show that sweet lupin flour is a good and safe source of energy and protein for adults.     

Nutritional status and land tenure. A study in adults of the rural area of the northeastern Brazil

The present study was carried out in the rural areas of four municipalities in the North-East of Brazil as part of a broader survey which covered a sample of families living in the area. A subsample of adults (453 women and 126 men) was obtained from individuals who attended the survey's post for clinical and anthropometric evaluation. According to land tenure, they were stratified into four categories: those with-without land (W.L.); small land owner (S.O.); medium land owners (M.O.); and large land owners (L.O.). Means for anthropometric variables (height, weight, middle arm circumference and skinfold thickness) were calculated for each stratum. The differences between groups were statistically significant (p less than 0.05). Findings revealed that the larger the property, the greater the mean value for height; extreme values attained a difference of 7 and 6 cm in men and women, respectively. Mean weight increased as land ownership grew reaching a difference of 9 and 11 kg in men and women, respectively (p less than 0.01). Skinfold thickness and middle arm circumference showed significant differences between strata. To evaluate their present nutritional status, the adequacy of weight to height was obtained. In spite of the low proportion of individuals who exhibited less than 90%, adequate improvement was detected as land tenure increased. The study discusses the precariousness of criteria and patterns for the nutritional evaluation of adults, and suggests the existence of a relationship between nutritional status and land ownership.     

Fatness and fat distribution by social stratum in Venezuelan youths

Adiposity and distribution of body fat are important issues in the prediction of degenerative diseases. Measurements of weight, height, circumferences of thigh, waist and hip; triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds; body mass index (BMI), centripetal index (CI), waist/hip (WHR), waist/thigh (WTR) ratios and sigma skinfold thickness (sigma SK) were performed in 836 youths (373 males, 463 females) aged 11, 13 and 15 years. Analysis method included Student t test, ANOVA, Principal Component Analysis and simple linear regression model, with sigma skinfold thickness as independent variable. The sample was divided in two groups (A and B) according with Graffar-Méndez Castellano methodology. Sexual dimorphism in adiposity and differences in body fat distribution were found with a tendency towards peripherical distribution for girls and centripetal for boys. Group A (higher stratum) showed higher values of skinfolds in both trunk and extremities, and a more peripherical distribution than his peers from group B. First component from extremity/trunk and second component from upper/inferior trunk distribution explained 40.2% and 32.7% of the variability respectively. CI and WHR appear dependent from BMI, WHR showed independence from BMI, although significant differences was found by social stratum, reflecting differences in fat topography in boys and girls from group B. These results confirm more adiposity in group A and a tendency towards central distribution in group B. Studies of body fat distribution during these age should include waist/thigh ratio.     

Effect of cooper supplementation on blood pressure values in patients with stable moderate hypertension

Copper (Cu) deficiency is associated with changes in arterial pressure. The effect depends of the age of initiation of the copper-deficient diet. Copper deficiency started at a young age causes hypotension. When initiated in older or adult animals, copper deficiency can cause hypertension. A case-control study was carried out to investigate the effect of administrating 5 mg Cu/d in 60 subjects, both genders, with mild stable hypertension, pharmacologically untreated (treated group) and compared with 60 hypertensives (control group) who were matched by gender, age, body weight, smoking habits, calories, fat and salt intake (NaCl), and physical activity. Hypertension was diagnosed when the blood pressure was > 150/95 mm Hg. Mean age, mean corporal weight and risk factors were similar in both groups. The results suggested the existence of a marginal deficiency of the trace element in 62% of subjects and demonstrated that Cu decreases systolic (r = -0.963) and diastolic (r = -0.981) blood pressures in treated group (p < 0.05). Control patients did not show significant changes in their arterial pressures. These findings indicate a functional alteration in human blood pressure regulation during mild copper depletion and suggest that Cu could be used in the treatment of stable moderate arterial hypertension. Further investigation is needed to determine the extent of this influence.     

Comparison of 2 anthropometric methods for the estimation of frame size in Venezuelan adults

The frame size improves the interpretation of the body mass in adult and its incorporation is very useful in the assessment of nutritional status. This study compared two of the anthropometric methods used to classify individuals according to frame size: Grant method (height (cm)/wrist circumference (cm)) and Frame index 2 (elbow breadth (mm)/height (cm) x 100) in order to identify coincidence, concordance and divergence between then. Data from two hundred and forty nine apparently healthy individuals, between the ages of 22 and 63, belonging to "Health Project: Administration employees of the Simón Bolívar University" were included. Results showed significant differences between the two methods, not only in the proportion of classified individuals in each frame size category, but also when contrasted the same method using one or another body hemispheres. When studying both methods, the divergence in frame size identification varied between 19% and 55% with a low concordance (k = < or = 0.40). Grant method, compared to Frame index 2 showed a greater association with the variables and indicators of total body mass and body fat; in the other hand, Frame index 2 revealed a lesser correlation with such variables and indicators specially in female (r = 0.17 with fat percentage). These results clearly show the differences that could be created in the frame size identification of an individual of group of individuals if different criteria are used; this could also lead to a wrong anthropometric diagnosis.     

Critical revision of the available methods for evaluate the body composition in population-based and clinical studies

The corporal composition evaluation is extremely important for the individual and population nutritional state diagnosis and for the establishment of appropriate clinical-nutritional conducts. An excess of body fat is frequently associated with important metabolic alterations and chronic diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension and dyslipidemia The availability of methods to assess body composition is essential to evaluate health status of individuals.There are several methods for the corporal composition analysis, and it is important to know the limitation of each one and his/her validity so that the obtained estimates are reliable and correctly interpreted. The purpose of this study was to revise the applicability of some nutritional state indicators and corporal composition evaluation methods, such as corporal mass index, waist circumference and waist-hip relation, skinfold measurements, bioelectrical impedance analysis and near-infrared interactance.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">trans</Emphasis>-Fatty Acid Isomers in Adipose Tissue Have Divergent Associations with Adiposity in Humans

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between adipose tissue trans-fatty acid isomers and adiposity. This cross-sectional study included 1,785 subjects from Costa Rica. Fatty acid concentrations (as a percentage of the total fatty acids) in subcutaneous adipose tissue were assessed by gas–liquid chromatography. Dietary intakes were assessed with a food frequency questionnaire. Multivariate linear regression models were used to relate adipose tissue trans-fatty acid content to BMI, waist circumference, and skinfold thickness while adjusting for age, sex, and area of residence. To account for variations in lifestyle, we adjusted for smoking, physical activity, income, self-reported history of diabetes and hypertension, and for adipose tissue alpha-linolenic acid and energy intake in a third model. After adjustments, positive associations were found between 18:2t-fatty acids (primarily from partially hydrogenated oils) and BMI, waist circumference, and skinfold thickness (P for each association <0.01). Rumenic acid was positively associated with skinfold thickness (P < 0.0001), but not with BMI or waist circumference (P > 0.05). Inverse associations were found between 16:1n-7t-fatty acids and skinfold thickness and between 18:1t-fatty acids and BMI and waist circumference (P < 0.0001). This study suggests that individual trans-fatty acid isomers may have divergent effects on adiposity. 18:2t-fatty acids show consistent positive associations with measures of adiposity. These isomer-specific associations are an interesting new finding. Other prospective and intervention studies are necessary to examine these relationships further.     

Selection of the more adequate prediction index to estimate the frame size a group of institutionalized and free living elderly in Venezuela. (Preliminary study)

The objective of the study was to identify an easy to measure indicator of body frame size to allow refinement of anthropometric nutritional evaluation. Body dimensions and frame indices related to height, which might be potential frame size predictors in the elderly, were studied. In 307 subjects (163 women, 144 men) aged 60-99 years of whom 187 were institutionalized and 120 free-living outpatients, weight, height, mid-arm circumference; triceps, subscapular, midthigh and calf skinfolds; elbow, wrist, femur and biacromial widths, were measured. Body mass index, upper arm muscle area, upper arm fat area, fat percentage, sum of skinfolds and frame indices were calculated. Results were calculated in function of age, sex and life-style. Biacromial breadth, biacromial/height index, wrist breadth and wrist/height index gave variable correlations with indices of body mass and body fat. Femur breadth and femur/height index were significantly correlated with body fat indices. Elbow breadth, humerus/height index were not correlated to body fat indices, but were significantly correlated with weight, height and fat free mass. Elbow breadth and humerus/height index fulfilled most of the criteria of good predictors of body frame size in the group pf elderly studied.     

Muscle and fat indicators in boys of the upper socioeconomic strata of Caracas

A sample of 271 boys, aged four, eight and 12 years, belonging to the upper socioeconomic strata of Caracas, was studied in order to test the sensibility and specificity of arm muscle and fat indicators, as evaluators of the muscle and fat tissues development, as well as of the nutritional status. Weight, height, arm circumference and triceps skinfold were measured following standardized techniques; muscle and fat areas were calculated from arm circumference and skinfold measurements. For statistical analysis, results were compared with North American reference standards, and correlation and regression analyses were performed. Nutritional assessment was performed using weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height, arm circumference and skinfold, plus the two derived areas. Malnourished children were identified using WHO guidelines in height and weight. Prevalences were compared and the sensibility, specificity and predictive values were studied. Malnourished children were analyzed individually. Arm circumference was the best predictor of nutritional status and triceps skinfold the worst predictor; muscle and fat areas were moderate predictors. On the average, four-year olds were smaller, lighter and much leaner than the reference, and eight and 12-year olds were taller, heavier and more muscular than the reference. Low fat was most prevalent in four-year olds, while high muscle increased with age and was highest at age 12, consistent with pubertal development. Obesity was most prevalent in eight-year olds. Twenty-eight per cent of the 50 children identified as malnourished in weight and height according to WHO, were normal in muscle and fat, and 66% of the 100 identified as malnourished in muscle and fat were normal according to WHO guidelines. Furthermore, 24% of children classified as overweight by weight-for-height were not obese but high in muscle. It is concluded that muscle and fat areas reflect muscle and fat components but are poor indicators of malnutrition, expressed in terms of weight and height. On the other hand, weight and height do not measure body composition. Weight-for-height should be used in combination with muscle and fat areas. National reference standards are needed and cut-off points should be revised, in order to maximize the efficiency and predictive values of these indicators.