Mineral nutrition and fertilizer response of grain sorghum in India — A review over the last 25 years

Researches on the mineral nutrition and fertilizer response of grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench) carried out during the last 25 years in India are reviewed here. In general, N,P,K, Fe and Mn concentrations in vegetative plant parts decreased with crop age, while the concentrations of Ca, Mg and Cu increased. The concentration of N and P increased in panicle or grains of sorghum with advance in crop age. The seasonal change for other nutrients has not, however, been studied.Accumulation and uptake of N,P, and K by grain sorghum were characterized. Usually N and P accumulated slowly compared with the rapid accumulation of K in early crop growth stage and vice-versa in later stages of growth. As against the sizable mass of N and P into panicle, K was partitioned into stalk.Fertilizer responses to N and P were observed throughout India. Improved varieties and hybrids of sorghum responded to N rates ranging from 60 to 150 kg N ha^–1, whereas a response to P application was observed up to 40 kg P ha^–1. Although responses to K application had been inconsistent, an increase in grain yield of sorghum was observed due to 33 kg K ha^–1. A balanced fertilizer schedule consisting of 120 kg N ha^–1, 26 kg P ha^–1, 33 kg K ha^–1 and 15–25 kg Zn50₄ ha^–1 is recommended for improved productivity of grain sorghum.It is concluded that systematic research efforts should be directed so as to identify problem soils showing deficiencies and toxicities of different nutrients. Characterization of the seasonal changes in the concentration and uptake of different nutrients and determination of critical concentration and hidden hunger of different nutrients in plant tissues would lead to the recommendation of balanced fertilization for different sorghum-growing regions in India.A part of the paper presented in the Silver Jubliee Conference of Indian Society of Agronomy held at H.A.U., Hissar (India) in March, 1981     

Growth and yield responses of dryland grain sorghum to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization in a ferruginous tropical soil (Haplustalf)

Field trials were conducted during the 1980–82 seasons to study the response dryland sorghum to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization in a ferruginous tropical soil. Treatments tested were factorial combinations of three rates of nitrogen (0, 60 and 120 kg N ha^–1) and four rates of phosphorus (0, 11, 22 and 33 kg P ha^–1). Grain and straw yields and yield components were enhanced by nitrogen fertilization in two out of three years. The optimum N rate for grain yield was 60 kg N ha^–1 while straw yield responded up to 120 kg N ha^–1. The optimum P rate for dryland sorghum was 11 kg P ha^–1. Both N and P enhanced grain weight per head, grain number, test weight and tillering significantly but it was only N which enhanced 1000-grain weight and flag leaf area. Dry matter productin was increased by N fertilization but not by P. There were no significant N × P interactions for any of the parameters studied. Dryland sorghum response to N and P fertilization was influenced by season, time of planting and rainfall distribution.     

Effects of nitrogen on growth,and nitrogen and phosphorus uptake in tops and roots of sorghum grown in an Alfisol and a Vertisol

A greenhouse pot experiment was conducted to study the effects of added nitrogen (0, 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg N kg^–1 soil) on dry matter production, and N and P uptake in tops and roots of sorghum (cv CSH6) grown in a Vertisol and an Alfisol for 42 days at field capacity soil moisture content. More dry matter accumulated in the tops and roots of sorghum growing in the Alfisol than in the Vertisol. This resulted in higher N and P uptake. Top dry weight responded to N application up to 50 mg N kg^–1 soil, whereas the root weight increased at N application up to 25 mg N kg^–1. Ratios of root dry weight to total plant dry weight and N uptake in roots/total N uptake were similar in the two soils. Ratio of P uptake in roots to total P uptake was higher in Alfisol than in Vertisol. This result was attributed mainly to higher ratio of P content in roots compared to tops in the Alfisol.Approved for publication as ICRISAT Journal Article No. 709.     

Response of two okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) varieties to fertilizers: Yield and yield components as influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus application

The response of two okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) varieties (White velvet and NHAE 47-4) to fertilization in northern Nigeria was examined using four rates of nitrogen (0, 25, 50 and 100 kg ha^–1) and three rates of phosphorus (0, 13 and 26 kg ha^–1). Nitrogen application significantly increased green pod yield, pod diameter, number of fruits per plant, number of seeds per pod and pod weight. Application of phosphorus also significantly increased green pod yield, pod number and number of seeds per pod. The two varieties responded to nitrogen application differentially with respect to green pod yield. For optimum green pod yield of White velvet 35 kg N ha^–1 is suggested while for variety NHAE 47-4, N fertilization can be increased to 70 kg ha^–1. There was no differential response of varieties to phosphorus fertilization for green pod yield; however, the application of 13 kg ha^–1 enhanced the performance of both varieties.     

Growth response,yield and yield components of upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L) as affected by rates and time of nitrogen application in the Nigerian savannah

Effects of rate and time of nitrogen fertilization on growth, yield and yield components of upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L) were studied in two years (1975–76). Four rates of nitrogen application (0, 26, 52 and 78 kg ha^–1) timed at 3 or 8 weeks after sowing were compared. Seed cotton yield components increased significantly with increased N application at least up to 52 kg N ha^–1, with yield increases between 49% and 73%. Seed cotton yield was influenced by treatments mainly through boll number. Both crop growth rate and fruiting were enhanced by nitrogen fertilization. Applying N at 8 weeks (flowering) favoured yield only slightly over that at 3 weeks (thinning), but improved crop growth and fruiting by about 64% and 24%, respectively. There were significant N rate × time interactions in favour of fertilization at flowering. Applying 52 kg N ha^–1 at 8 weeks seems best for cotton in the Nigerian savannah.     

Response of sorghum to fertilizer phosphorus and its residual value in a Vertisol

The response of crops to added P in Vertisols is generally less predictable than in other soil types under similar agroclimatic conditions. Very few studies have considered the residual effects of P while studying responses to fresh P applications. Field experiments were conducted for three years to study the response of sorghum to fertilizer P applied at 0, 10, 20 and 40 kg P ha^–1, and its residual value in a Vertisol, very low in extractable P (0.4 mg P kg^–1 soil), at the ICRISAT Center, Patancheru (near Hyderbad), India. In order to compare the response to fresh and residual P directly in each season, a split-plot design was adopted. One crop of sorghum (cv CSH6) was grown each year during the rainy season (June-September).The phenology of the sorghum crop and its harvest index were greatly affected by P application. The days to 50% flowering and physiological maturity were significantly reduced by P application as well as by the residues of fertilizer P applied in the previous season. In the first year of the experiment, sorghum grain yield increased from 0.14 t (no P added) to 3.48 t ha^–1 with P added at the rate of 40 kg P ha^–1. Phosphorus applied in the previous year was 58% as effective as fresh P but P applied two years earlier was only 18% as effective as fresh P.     

Yield response and nitrogen uptake of pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke) cultivars to nitrogen application in the savanna region of Nigeria

Field experiments were carried out during the wet seasons (May to September) of 1980 and 1981 in order to determine the response of five pearl millet cultivars to nitrogen fertilization in savanna region of Nigeria. There were varietal differences in yield and nitrogen uptake in response to nitrogen rates. Most cultivars responded significantly up to 75 kg N ha^–1. Hybrid outyielded other cultivars at both locations each year. Nitrogen use efficiency was highest with the Hybrid, compared to other cultivars.     

Effect of Phenolic Acids in Soil under and Between Rows of a Prior Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Crop on Germination, Emergence, and Seedling Growth of Peanut (Arachis hypogea)

Sorghum bicolor is an allelopathic crop that reduces the yield of succeeding crops. We have assessed its effect on the germination, emergence, and seedling growth of Arachis hypogea sown in soil that had had a prior sorghum cropping. A. hypogea was sown on rows and interrows of a previous sorghum crop in 1997 and 1998 in Senegal. Seedling establishment (germination rate and seedling weight) was better between rows than on rows of the previous crop. The highest concentrations of phenolic compounds occurred in the rows in 1998, while contents of row and interrow soils were similar in 1997. Vanillic acid was the main component of the six chemicals found in 1997 soils, whereas the 1998 soil samples contained mainly p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillic, and p-coumaric acids (10 phenolics identified). The germination of peanut seeds in water (control), soil water extracts, and mixtures of pure phenolics (equivalent to those in 1997 and 1998 soil samples) was tested. All extracts inhibited germination compared to controls, but there was no significant difference among treatments, i.e., the inhibition was the same for seeds in soil solutions and those in the respective phenolic mixtures. Similarly, there were no significant differences among the germination rates in soil water extracts of rows and interrows or in the pure phenolic mixtures of rows and interrows. We propose a geometrical sowing pattern for peanuts between the rows of the previous sorghum crop to escape the latter's "allelopathic heritage."     

Response of two okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) varieties to fertilizers: Growth and nutrient concentration as influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus application

The growth response and nutrient concentration in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) as influenced by four nitrogen rates (0, 25, 50 and 100 kg ha^–1) and three phosphorus rates (0, 13 and 26 kg ha^–1) were examined using two varieties (White velvet and NHAE 47-4). Nitrogen application generally increased fruit and shoot dry weights markedly whereas phosphorus increased them only moderately. Leaf and primary branch production and plant height were also enhanced by nitrogen fertilization up to 100 kg N ha^–1 but were not influenced by phosphorus application. The application of nitrogen enhanced the concentration of N, P and K in fruits and N and Mg in leaves while P and K concentrations in leaves were depressed. Nutrient concentrations in plant tissues were also partly a function of plant age and variety.     

Response of three sorghum varieties to N supply and plant density in a tropical environment

Field trials were conducted at Samaru, Nigeria to investigate the growth, yield and grain quality response of three grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) varieties (L. 187, SK 5912 and FFBL) to N fertilization under varying plant densities (33300, 50000 or 66600 plants ha^–1). Year × N interactions were significant for yield components and so were variety × N and variety × plant density interactions. Grain yield increased 41, 42, and 126% with application of 60 kg N ha^–1, the optimum N rate, a response which was associated with variations in grain weight per panicle, panicle weight and grain number. Varieties SK 5912 and FFBL produced more straw in response to added N than did var. L. 187 while yield components in var. SK 5912 and L.187 responded better than those in var. FFBL. Yield components declined in var. SK 5912 and L. 187 as plant density was increased to either 50000 or 66600 plants ha^–1. Grain crude protein (CP) content and protein yield were increased 8 and 52% respectively by 60 kg N ha^–1 but CP content declined as plant density was increased. Grain tannin content was virtually unaffected by increasing N supply. Optimum plant density for grain sorghum production in this environment is in the range of 50000 plants ha^–1.     

Effect of crop residues on grain yield response of sorghum (t Sorghum bicolor) (L.) to application of N and P fertilizer

A field experiment was conducted on two soil types for seven years (1988–1994) to investigate the effect of the presence of crop residue on grain yield response of sorghum to NP fertilizer applied every year or once only at the start of the experiment. Grain yield was increased by the NP fertilizer alone, but was not further significantly increased by application of both residues and NP fertilizer. During the study period yields decreased abruptly with decreasing rainfall after the first year particularly on the Typic Pellustert. Thus there was a difference according to soil type. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Tannins, phytic phosphorus, phytase activity in the seed of 12 sorghum grain hybrids (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench)

In order to evaluate the variability in concentration of secondary metabolites among grains from different sorghum hybrids (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench) and provide some information for rational use in animal feeds, grain samples were collected from 12 hybrids (Criollo 1, Criollo 27, Chaguaramas III, Chaguaramas VII, Cristiani Burkard H-8046-2, Guanipa 95, Himeca 101, Himeca 400, Pioneer 81-G67, Pioneer 83-G88, Pioneer 86-P42 y Tecsem 120) sowed on 2008 in the Turén municipality, Portuguesa State-Venezuela. Using standardized analytical methods, hybrids showed polyphenolics compounds contents (0.92 +/- 0.37% TaE), total (0.61 +/- 0.29% TaE) and condensed tannins (0.95 +/- 0.65% LeuE), phytic phosphorus (0.17 +/- 0.03%) and intrinsic phytase activity (12.3 +/- 6.74 U/kg) in the ranges described in the literature, with an important variation among hybrids that must be considered for their inclusion levels in the formulation of balanced feeds, as well as plant breeding programs.     

Relationship between extracted phosphorus and sorghum yield in a Vertisol and an Alfisol under rainfed cropping

Little attention has been devoted to calibrating the soil tests for P in the field for crops grown under rainfed conditions in different soil types. Field experiments were conducted during the 1990 rainy season (June-September) at the ICRISAT Center, Patancheru (near Hyderabad), India on nearby Vertisol and Alfisol sites having a range in extractable P, for establishing relationships between extractable P and sorghum yield.In the Vertisol, 90% relative grain yield of sorghum was obtained at 2.8 mg kg^–1 Olsen extractable P while in the Alfisol, 90% relative grain yield was achieved at 5.0 mg P kg^–1 soil. These results suggest that a single critical limit of available P does not hold true for grain sorghum in the two soil types under similar agroclimatic conditions and that the critical limit is lower for the clayey Vertisol than the sandy Alfisol.     

Effects of rate and timing of nitrogen dressings on grain yield formation of winter wheat (T. aestivum L.)

A field experiment with the winter wheat cultivar Donata was carried out on a fine-textured river clay soil in 1978. The rates of nitrogen dressing ranged from 0 to 160 kg N per ha and were split over from one up to three application times: autumn, early spring and late spring.Total above-ground dry matter and grain dry-weight yields ranged from 9.1 to 13.7 tons per ha and from 4.17 to 6.35 tons per ha, respectively. Late top-dressings increased the harvest-index, whereas an autumn dressing had the opposite effect. Number of culms per m², grain weight (mg) and grain number per m² increased from 350 to 430, from 35.5 to 36.8 and from 11 680 to 16 980, respectively, as the nitrogen dosage was raised from 0 to 160 kg N per ha.The linear rate of grain growth ranged from 111 to 172 kg dry matter per ha per day with nitrogen doses from 0 to 160 kg N per ha. Differences in rate of grain growth per unit area were mainly related to number of grains per m². The association between grain number and grain yield was reflected by a correlation coefficient of 0.97 (n = 32). A higher level of nitrogen dressing enhanced the leaf area index and leaf area duration. However, we could not derive an effect of nitrogen on the duration of grain growth.Total nitrogen yield ranged from 71 to 166 kg N per ha and grain nitrogen yield from 54 to 122 kg N per ha with nitrogen dosages of 0 and 160 kg N per ha, respectively. The nitrogen concentration of the grains varied between 1.3 and 2.0 N.An autumn dressing of 40 kg N per ha generally showed only minor effects on yield and yield components. Top dressings during spring resulted in a higher recovery and efficiency of the applied nitrogen. Therefore, it may be concluded from this experiment and literature that on fertile soils an autumn dressing of nitrogen will not be economical, but split-dressings in spring are very beneficial. In particular, a late nitrogen application during the boot stage increased grain number, harvest-index and grain yield as well as protein concentration of the grain.     

Response of rainfed bread and durum wheat to source,level and timing of nitrogen fertilizer on two Ethiopian Vertisols: II. N uptake,recovery and efficiency

In trials conducted at 2 highland Vertisol sites in Ethiopia in 1990 and 1991, 2 locally popular wheat cultivars, 1 spring bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and 1 durum wheat (T. durum Desf.), were supplied with nitrogen (N) fertilizer at 0, 60 and 120 kg N ha^–1 in the form of large granular urea (LGU), standard urea prills or ammonium sulfate. N was applied all at sowing, all at mid-tillering or split-applied between these two stages (1/3:2/3). While durum wheat exhibited the highest N concentration in grain and straw, bread wheat, because of its higher productivity, resulted in a greater grain and total N uptake. In general, split application of N and use of LGU as N source enhanced grain and total N uptake, apparent N recovery and agronomic efficiency of N, particularly under severe water-logging stress. Where significant, the interactions among the experimental factors substantiated the superior responsiveness of the bread wheat cultivar to fertilizer N, and the beneficial effects of split N application and LGU as an N source. Split application of N tended to nullify the positive effects of LGU, presumably by approximating the delayed release of N achieved with LGU. Considering the potential benefits to Ethiopian peasant farmers and consumers, split application of N should be advocated, particularly on water-logged Vertisols; LGU could be an advantageous N source assuming a cost comparable to the conventional N source urea.     

Comparative response of bread and durum wheat cultivars to nitrogen fertilizer in a rainfed Mediterranean environment: soil nitrate and N uptake and efficiency

A 3-year multi-site study was carried out on rainfed Vertisols under Mediterranean conditions in southern Europe to determine the influence of the N fertilizer rate on soil nitrates, N uptake and N use efficiency in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var. Durum Desf.) in rotation with sunflower (Heliathus annuus L.). Nitrogen fertilizer rates were 0, 100, 150 and 200 kg N ha⁻¹ applied in equal proportions at sowing, tillering and stem elongation. The experiment was designed as a randomized complete block with a split plot arrangement and four replications. Nitrogen harvest index (NHI), N uptake/grain yield (NUp/GY), N use efficiency (NUE), N utilization efficiency (NUtE), N uptake efficiency (NUpE) and N apparent recovery fraction (NRF) were calculated. Differences were observed in N use efficiency between the two modern bread wheat and durum wheat cultivars studied. In comparison to durum, bread wheat displayed greater N accumulation capacity and a more efficient use of N for grain production. While under N-limiting conditions, the behavior was similar for both wheat types. No difference was noted between wheat types with regard to changes in soil residual levels over the study period at the various sites. The 100-kg ha⁻¹ N fertilizer rate kept soil nitrates stable at a moderate level in plots where both wheat types were sown.     

Growth,yield components and micronutrient nutrition of field-grown maize (Zea mays L.) as affected by nitrogen fertilization and plant density

Growth and yield components in field-grown maize (Zea mays L.) were enhanced by nitrogen fertilization ranging from 50 to 200 kg N ha^–1. Ear diameter, kernel depth, grain: stover ratio, number of ears plant^–1, plant height and dry matter production increased as N fertilization rate was increased up to 100 or 150 kg N ha^–1. Tasselling in maize was hastened by N fertilization. Increasing plant density from 25000 to 75000 plants ha^–1 increased plant height, dry matter production and delayed tasseling but reduced ear diameter, kernel depth, grain: stover ratio and number of ears plant^–1. Increased N supply and plant density had no influence on the concentrations of Mn, Zn, Cu, and Fe in ear leaf; except that Mn concentration increased as N fertilization rate was increased up to 150 kg N ha^–1. Nitrogen × plant density interactions on the concentrations of the micronutrients in maize ear leaf were not significant.     

Effect of rates and sources of nitrogen application on yield and nutrient uptake of Citronella Java (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt)

Two field experiments were conducted for two crop cycles each of two years (1985–87 and 1986–88) on an entisols to study the effect of rate and sources of N application on yield and nutrient uptake of Citronella Java (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt). Fresh herbage and essential oil yields were significantly influenced by application of N up to 200 kg ha^–1 yr^–1, while tissue N concentration and N uptake increased only to 150 kg N ha^–1. The oil yields with Neem cake coated urea (urea granules coated with Neem cake) and urea super granules were 22 and 9% higher over that with prilled urea and urea supergranules were significantly increased up to 200 kg N ha^–1 while with Neem cake coated urea, response was observed only to 150 kg N ha^–1! Estimated recovery of N during two years from Neem cake coated urea, urea supergranules and prilled urea were 38, 31 and 21%, respectively.     

Direct and residual effect of liming on yield and nutrient uptake of maize (Zea mays L.) in moderately acid soils in the savanna zone of Nigeria

Field experiments were conducted during wet season of 1980, 1981 and 1982 to determine the direct and residual effect of liming on yield and nutrient uptake of maize in moderately acid soils (pH -H₂O; 5.0–5.4) at three locations viz Kontagora, Tumu and Yandev in the savanna zone of Nigeria. Maize crop was grown at five lime rates 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 t ha^–1 and two N sources (calcium ammonium nitrate and urea). Liming at a rate of 2 t ha^–1 maintained high maize yield for three years after application at Kontagora and Yandev. At Tumu 1 t ha^–1 was sufficient to get high yield of maize for three years. Higher rates of lime significantly depressed yield. Uptake of N, P and K was increased significantly with lime application upto 2 t ha^–1 lime at Kontagora and Yandev but at Tumu it increased only upto 1 t ha^–1. The response of P uptake to liming was higher in comparison to N and K uptake. Calcium and magnesium uptake responded upto 4 t ha^–1 lime at Kontagora & Yandev and upto 2 t ha^–1 at Tumu. The residual effect of liming lasted longer than 2 years. High lime rates reduced maize yields and crop nutrient uptake.     

Effect of fertilization on organic and microbial biomass nitrogen using15N under corn (Zea mays L.) in two Quebec soils

Changes in soil organic N following fertilizer N applications are related to soil quality and subsequent N uptake by plants. Recovery of fertilizer N as organic N and soil microbial biomass N within two corn (Zea mays L.) fertilization systems was studied using¹⁵N on a Chicot soil (fine-loamy, mixed, frigid, Typic Hapludalf) and a Ste. Rosalie soil (fine, mixed, frigid, Typic Humanquept) in southwestern Quebec in 1989 and 1990. The two fertilization systems studied received a recommended rate of 170-44-131 kg (normal rate) and a high rate of 400-132-332 kg of N-P-K per hectare. Increasing fertilization rates above normal increased microbial biomass N immobilization with a subsequent greater N release. Higher fertilization rates significantly increased both the magnitude of soil microbial biomass N and microbial fertilizer N recovery in the soil microbial biomass.