Development of a micro thermal sensor for real-time monitoring of lubricating oil concentration

We report development of a micro thermal sensor and sensing techniques for monitoring the oil concentration in a refrigeration system. The sensor acquires the thermal response of the mixture to ac heating and then the concentration can be determined using one of the two different methods. In the first method, the thermal conductivity of the mixture is obtained using the three-omega method and the concentration is determined using the correlation between the mixture concentration and thermal conductivity. In the alternative fast-detection method, the concentration is determined by directly calibrating the sensor output signal to the mixture concentration. The performance of the sensor was tested using the R410A/polyvinyl ether (PVE) oil mixture. The uncertainty of the oil concentration measurement was estimated to be 5.8-7.3 wt.%, depending on the sensing scheme. Especially, the simple structure of the sensor makes the technique cost effective and adequate for miniaturization, i.e., for installation in a limited space.     

Acoustic Emission Sensor Calibration for Absolute Source Measurements

This paper describes sensor calibration and signal analysis techniques applicable to the method of acoustic emission (AE) and ultrasonic testing. They are particularly useful for obtaining absolute measurements of AE wave amplitude and shape, which can be used to constrain the physics and mechanics of the AE source. We illustrate how to perform calibration tests on a thick plate and how to implement two different mechanical calibration sources: ball impact and glass capillary fracture. In this way, the instrument response function can be estimated from theory, without the need for a reference transducer. We demonstrate the methodology by comparing calibration results for four different piezoelectric acoustic emission sensors: Physical Acoustics (PAC) PAC R15, PAC NANO30, DigitalWave B1025, and the Glaser-type conical sensor. From the results of these tests, sensor aperture effects are quantified and the accuracy of calibration source models is verified. Finally, this paper describes how the effects of the sensor can be modeled using an autoregressive-moving average (ARMA) model, and how this technique can be used to effectively remove sensor-induced distortion so that a displacement time history can be retrieved from recorded signals.     

Study of the sensitivity of the acoustic waveguide sensor

The sensitivity of the acoustic waveguide sensor to mass deposition in the presence of liquid was optimized as a function of the over-layer thickness. The waveguide geometry consisted of a 0.2-2.2-microm poly(methyl)methacrylate (PMMA) over-layer deposited on the surface of a shear acoustic wave device and supported a Love wave. The response of each polymer-coated waveguide was initially assessed by monitoring the frequency and insertion loss of the device in the presence of air. Sensitivity to viscous and mass loading was studied by recording the amplitude and phase of the wave during the application of water and of a supported lipid bilayer, respectively, on the device surface. Supported bilayers are a versatile system for mass calibration in the presence of liquid because they can be formed spontaneously on a hydrophilic surface, resulting in a layer of reproducible mass density. Results clearly showed that the response of both amplitude and phase depends on the over-layer thickness and increases with the thickness of the polymer layer. Phase was generally found to be more sensitive than amplitude to both viscous water and mass loading. The maximum sensitivity to vesicles deposition was measured at 250 cm2 g(-1) and was detected when 1.3 microm of PMMA was used as a waveguide layer. Results showed that the sensitivity of the acoustic wave sensor can be improved by simply increasing the thickness of the PMMA and that supported phospholipid layers can form an ideal system for both mass calibration and interfacial modification.     

电容式密度传感器低密度液氢校准实验研究

设计、搭建了一套可调节密度式多点电容式密度传感器校准装置,并进行了电容式密度传感器低密度液氢的校准试验。实现了对液氢在一定低密度范围内(50—70kg/m3)的调节,突破了传统的常压单一密度点校准技术,实现了液氢多密度点的校准,提高了校准结果的可靠性。对电容式密度传感器校准装置各因素引入的不确定度分量进行了评定,分析得到了该装置的不确定度,试验结果表明采用给液氢增压的方式可以对液氢低密度进行准确控制,该调节装置的不确定度满足电容式密度传感器校准设计要求,并且能够对电容式密度传感器在多种低温流体介质中进行较宽密度范围校准。     

互易法校准压电型声发射传感器的研究与实现

声发射传感器的校准是实现声发射定量技术的前提,依据电声换能器互易原理,在计算互易常数的基础 上,建立了适用于压电型声发射传感器表面波和纵波互易的校准系统。通过设置特定的激励信号波形,依据接收 电压信号与激励电流信号之间的时间延迟,准确获取电流信号与电压信号对应的特征值,实现了声发射传感器的表面波和纵波互易校准。由于传感器的尺寸效应,传感器在高频时的表面波速度灵敏度低于纵波灵敏度,不确定度评定结果表明,声发射传感器速度灵敏度的互易法校准不确定度为1. 2 dB。     

A novel sensor for monitoring acoustic cavitation. Part I: Concept, theory, and prototype development

This paper describes a new concept for an ultrasonic cavitation sensor designed specifically for monitoring acoustic emissions generated by small microbubbles when driven by an applied acoustic field. Its novel features include a hollow, open-ended, cylindrical shape, with the sensor being a right circular cylinder of height 32 mm and external diameter 38 mm. The internal diameter of the sensor is 30 mm; its inner surface is fabricated from a 110 /spl mu/m layer of piezoelectrically active film whose measurement bandwidth is sufficient to enable acoustic emissions up to and beyond 10 MHz to be monitored. When in use, the sensor is immersed within the liquid test medium and high frequency (megahertz) acoustic emissions occurring within the hollow body of the sensor are monitored. In order to shield the sensor response from events occurring outside the cylinder, the outer surface of the sensor cylinder is encapsulated within a special 4 mm thick polyurethane-based cavitation shield with acoustic properties specifically developed to be minimally perturbing to the 40 kHz applied acoustic field but attenuating to ultrasound generated at megahertz frequencies (plane-wave transmission loss >30 dB at 1 MHz). This paper introduces the rationale behind the new sensor, describing details of its construction and the materials formulation program undertaken to develop the cavitation shield.     

A novel optical sensor for the measurement of furfuraldehyde intransformer oil

Measuring the concentration of furfuraldehyde (FFA) within oil samples taken periodically from power transformers is usually carried out as a means of condition monitoring. Normally, laboratory-based techniques such as high performance liquid chromatography are applied for this measurement. We report the construction of a novel optoelectronic sensor for the determination of FFA in transformer oils to concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm. The sensor will form the basis of a compact and portable instrument that can be used by a nonspecialist operator to determine, on-site, the concentration of FFA in oil extracted from the transformer     

Interfacial Tension Measurement With an Optofluidic Sensor

This paper reports a novel optofluidic sensor for measuring dynamic interfacial tensions. The field of optofluidics utilizes both microfluidics and micro-optics. Thus, our sensor consists of a microfluidic network and an optical detection system. The sensor is able to measure both surface tension and liquid/liquid interfacial tension. In the case of surface tension measurement, the liquid sample is introduced into a main channel, while air is injected through a T-junction. In the case of liquid/liquid interfacial tension measurement, a second immiscible liquid such as oil is introduced into a main channel, while the sample liquid is injected through the T-junction. The formation frequency of the microbubbles or microdroplets is a function of the interfacial tension between the two phases. This frequency can be measured easily by optical detection. Measurements were carried out for aqueous solutions with different concentrations of the ionic surfactant cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB). The actual interfacial tensions of these solutions were calibrated with a commercial tensiometer (FTA200, First Ten Angstrom). The measurement results show a clear relation between the interfacial tension and the formation frequency. Furthermore, our sensor can be used to identify the critical micelle concentration (CMC) of a surfactant. The sensor potentially allows the use of a minute amount of sample compared to the relatively large amount required for existing commercial systems     

Concentration distribution and viscosity of ice-slurry in heterogeneous flow

Mathematical modeling of two phase flows, especially liquid–solid flows is very complex. Especially when a distribution of the solid phase in a carrier liquid is not homogenous but heterogeneous or even when a moving or stationary bed occurs. In this case, the rheological characteristics of suspension are changing and affect transport characteristics. Therefore, the slurry flow may present a Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid as well, depending on the operation characteristics. In this paper the fully suspended ice-slurry flow in a horizontal pipe is analysed. The model allows us to avoid the definition on what kind of fluid ice-slurry is present. For the taken ice-particle diameter, the ice-concentration profiles depending on various average velocities and pipe diameters are shown. The viscosity of the ice-slurry is presented, depending on average concentration, velocity, pipe diameter and ice-particle size. The results of the analysis have shown that the ice slurrys can be treated as Newtonian-fluid at higher average velocities, and lower average concentrations as well. As the ice concentration increases and velocity decreases the viscosity depends not only on the ice concentration but also on the average velocity and the pipe diameter. The ice-slurry behaves then as a non-Newtonian fluid. The results show also the area where the safe operation of an ice-slurry-district-cooling system can be performed.     

Acoustic sensors for the control of liquid–solid interface evolution and chemical reactivity

Less classical than far-field acoustic investigations of solid materials and/or solid–liquid interfaces, near-field acoustic properties of an acoustic solid wave guide (tip), thin enough at its termination to present an external diameter smaller than the excitation acoustic wave wavelength, is shown to be able to probe interface properties. As a result of that, these near-field acoustic probes can play the role of chemical sensors, if chemical modifications or chemical reactions are concerned at their surface. In that context, a chemical sensor was realized by electrochemical deposition of an electron-conducting polymer (polypyrrole–biotin) on a metal tip, followed by enzyme attachment by molecular recognition process involving the biotin–avidin-specific interaction. Results from near-field acoustic showed that the enzyme modification of the polymer layer can be detected by this new acoustic sensor.     

Influences of miscible and immiscible oils on flow characteristics through capillary tube—part I: experimental study

A capillary tube is widely used as an expansion device for small refrigeration cycles. In a practical refrigeration cycle, some amount of refrigeration oil is discharged from a compressor and refrigerant/oil mixture flows through the capillary tube. This study investigated experimentally the influence of mixing of the refrigeration oil with the refrigerant on the flow through the capillary tube. The experiments are carried out with not only a miscible combination of refrigerant and oil but also an immiscible combination. In both cases, the mass flow rate through the capillary tube and temperature and pressure distributions along the tube are measured under several conditions of subcooled degree and oil concentration. In the case of miscible combination, the mass flow rate of refrigerant decreases with increasing the oil concentration because the viscosity of liquid phase increases by the mixing of viscous oil. Even in the case of the immiscible combination, the oil droplet is so small that it mixes homogeneously in the liquid phase in the capillary tube and the refrigerant mass flow rate decreases by the mixing of immiscible oil. There is no significant influence of the oil concentration on the underpressure, which means pressure difference between saturation pressure and flash inception pressure, in both miscible and immiscible combinations.     

Propagation of a quasi-shear horizontal acoustic wave in Z-Xlithium niobate plates [and conductivity sensor application]

It is found that an acoustic wave which is nearly polarized in the shear horizontal (SH) direction can propagate along the X axis of a Z-cut lithium niobate plate if the ratio h/λ, where h=plate thickness and λ=acoustic wavelength, is less than about 0.5. Attractive properties of this quasi-SH wave include: (1) phase velocity nearly constant for all values of h/λ; (2) ability to propagate in contact with a liquid medium; and (3) electromechanical coupling coefficient as high as 0.15. These properties make the wave attractive for use in a variety of sensor and signal processing applications. An example of sensor applications is illustrated by using the wave to measure conductivity of liquids (aqueous KCl solution). The frequency of a 12-MHz quasi-SH mode oscillator fabricated on a 0.48 wavelength thick Z-X lithium niobate plate is found to vary by more than 80 kHz for variation in KCI concentration from 0 to 0.15%     

Application of Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors for Liquid Helium-4 and Helium-3

A surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor can be used to determine the acoustic properties of liquid He. We applied this sensor for liquid ³He and liquid ⁴He. Two kinds of SAW were used in this experiment, Rayleigh-SAW and shear horizontal SAW. The damping of Rayleigh-SAW was measured in liquid ⁴He. The results agreed well with the reported values of the acoustic impedance, and the superfluid transition was clearly seen. The damping and the phase shift of shear horizontal SAW were measured in the normal liquid ³He. Temperature dependence of the damping and the phase shift was analyzed by the viscoelastic model, and the results were compared with the transverse acoustic impedance in the normal ³He.     

Fiber Fabry-Perot sensors for detection of partial discharges in power transformers

A diaphragm-based interferometric fiberoptic sensor that uses a low-coherence light source was designed and tested for on-line detection of the acoustic waves generated by partial discharges inside high-voltage power transformers. The sensor uses a fused-silica diaphragm and a single-mode optical fiber encapsulated in a fused-silica glass tube to form an extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometer, which is interrogated by low-coherence light. Test results indicate that these fiber optic acoustic sensors are capable of faithfully detecting acoustic signals propagating inside transformer oil with high sensitivity and wide bandwidth.     

Ultrasonic Imaging in Hot Liquid Sodium Using a Plate-Type Ultrasonic Waveguide Sensor

This paper reports the first set of results from ultrasonic measurements for determining the imaging capability of a plate-type ultrasonic waveguide sensor in \(200\,^{\circ }\) C liquid sodium. This 10-m long plate-type waveguide sensor has been developed for viewing objects in opaque liquid sodium coolant for the applications in a sodium-cooled fast reactor (a next generation nuclear reactor). Various imaging capabilities of the waveguide sensor have already been demonstrated in water including ultrasonic beam steering, high resolution C-scan, and so on. However, water and liquid sodium have different acoustic properties and, more importantly, different wetting characteristics with stainless steel—the material for the waveguide sensor. For applications of the developed waveguide sensor in a real reactor environment, this research performs a set of necessary ultrasonic measurements in liquid sodium. The end section of the waveguide sensor which radiates an ultrasonic beam into the liquid sodium is coated with thin beryllium and nickel layers which can significantly improve the ultrasonic beam quality and wetting property of the stainless steel. A liquid sodium facility that consists of a glove box system, a sodium test tank, and an argon purification system has been built. The resolution and beam property are determined from ultrasonic C-scan experiments; a signal-to-noise ratio of over 10 dB and the resulting detection of a 1 mm wide slit can be achieved. The inherent issues associated with wetting of the waveguide sensor in liquid sodium are discussed based on the ultrasonic imaging results.     

Mass sensitivity of the thin-rod acoustic wave sensor operated in flexural and extensional modes

The mass sensitivities of the thin-rod acoustic wave sensor in both flexural and extensional acoustic modes are presented. These are based on experiments involving the electrodeposition of a test loading material onto a thin metal fiber (the thin rod) in a delay line configuration. Only small changes in acoustic loss occur when the device is immersed in an electrolyte, particularly in the flexural mode. Copper and lead have been used as test materials to confirm that the effects of elasticity can give rise to positive and negative mass sensitivities, respectively. The experimental and theoretical values all agree in sign and are of the same order of magnitude. This result confirms a refined theoretical model that includes incorporation of the effects of elasticity and inertia. An increase in experimental mass sensitivity with decrease in fiber radius is one of the advantages for the construction of a sensitive chemical sensor based on the thin-rod device. The sensor can be operated with facility in both gas and liquid phases and offers a new technique for the study of interfacial electrochemistry on metal surfaces. The phenomenon of mechanical resonance was observed during a number of experiments.     

Thermal acoustic oscillations in triple point liquid hydrogen systems

Thermal acoustic oscillations are often observed in tubes which penetrate a cryogenic system and are closed at the warm end and open at the cold end. Such tubes are genrally used for filling or vetning the tank, providing relief pressure or inserting instruments taps. Large amounts of heat (of the order of ten to a thousand times more than by normal heat conduction) can be transferred into a cryogenic system when such thermaloscillations occur. A number of studies examining thermal acoustic oscillations in liquid helium systems have been performed by Rott et al. However, only minimal consideration has been given to such oscillationsin liquid and sluch hydrogen systems. This study extends Rott's theory to the stability aspects of thermal acoustic oscillations for a straight tube closed at the warm end and inserted into a Dewar flask filled with triple point liquid hydrogen when the cold open end is located above the liquid surface. These results can also be applied to a slush hydrogen when the pressure in the Dewar flask is reduced to the triple point pressure of hydrogen. Numerical results have been obtained in this study for developing stability curves, establishing oscillation frequency characteristics and identifying critical configurations for initiating such oscillation. The mechanisms associated with the two branches of the stability curves for thermal acoustic oscillations have also been investigated.     

互易法与表面脉冲法校准声发射传感器的一致性探讨

声发射传感器的校准是声发射定量检测技术的前提,互易法和表面脉冲法是目前通常采用的两种校准方法,为探讨其一致性,从互易常数入手,比较表面波互易常数和表面脉冲法中的等效互易常数。通过加载力的等效处理、利用激光测振仪测量质点振速,获得法向速度和所加力脉冲的时域和频域分量,计算得到等效互易常数。同时,建立互易法和表面脉冲法校准系统,对实验结果进行对比分析。互易常数与等效互易常数的计算结果和基于校准系统的实验结果表明,互易法和表面脉冲法之间具有较好的一致性,电信号激励声发射换能器所引起的径向谐振产生的影响,对于互易校准而言可以忽略。     

A noniterative polynomial 2-D calibration method implemented in amicrocontroller

Output signal handling of a smart sensor usually involves a calibration facility to correct for input-output nonidealities which comprise offset, gain errors, nonlinearity errors, and cross sensitivity. In this paper, a calibration method is presented which features a progressive improvement in the sensor calibrated transfer toward the desired transfer as the user proceeds from one calibration point to the next. The method is based on a set of mathematical formulas whereby a calibration coefficient is calculated at a selected calibration point and used to calculate a first correction of the sensor transfer curve. Further improvement in the sensor transfer is obtained by repeating the process for a second calibration point using the transfer resulting from the first calibration, without the need to review the calibration already carried out at the first point. The process can be repeated until the desired error reduction is obtained. Step by step, the calibration method builds up a polynomial transfer correction. Simulation results are shown to demonstrate the performance of the method, A software implementation of the method for two-dimensional (2-D) calibration in an 8-bit microcontroller is presented. The microcontroller with calibration program can be incorporated in a compact smart sensor system     

水声传感器自动测试位移机构设计

在水声传感器研制过程和实际装机应用之前,需进行大量的试验来测试其性能及可靠性。根据水声传感器的性能测试需求,设计了能够搭载水声传感器进行水下测试的五自由度精密位移试验台,实现传感器在试验水槽内三个直线方向和两个回转角度方向上位置的全覆盖,并提出了一种可以快速检测梯形丝杠螺母传动回程误差的工程测量方法,通过软件补偿的方法来克服回程误差,实现机构运动的准确定位,满足了低成本模式下多自由度精密定位需求。最终,应用激光跟踪仪对试验设备进行了误差检测,保证测试过程中传感器相对位置的准确性。