Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n = 25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P < 0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5–3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory quality of beef patties

The interactive effects of varying levels of salt and fat on the sensory and physiochemical properties of beef patties were investigated. Twenty beef patties with varying levels of fat (30% 40% 50% 60% w/w) and salt (0.5%, 0.75% 1.0% 1.25% 1.5% w/w) were manufactured. All samples were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Sensory consumer evaluation was conducted using 25 consumers. The consumers rated each coded product, in duplicate, in terms of colour, texture, tenderness, juiciness, salt, taste, meat flavour, off flavour and overall acceptability. The data indicate that the most consumer acceptable beef patty was that containing 40% fat with a salt level of 1%. This is a 20% decrease in fat and a 50% decrease in salt levels when compared to commercial patties available in Ireland and the UK.     

The impact of salt and fat level variation on the physiochemical properties and sensory quality of pork breakfast sausages

The sensory and physiochemical properties of sausages with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty eight sausages were produced with varying concentrations of fat (22.5%, 27.5%, 32.5%, 37.5% w/w) and salt (0.8%, 1%, 1.2%, 1.4%, 1.6%, 2%, 2.4% w/w). Sausages were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n = 25), evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, texture, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale.     

Effects of Reduced Salt (NaCI) Levels on Sensory and Instrumental Evaluation of Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured with beef-pork mixtures using commercial procedures and varying levels (2.5%, 2.0%, 1.5%, 1.0%) of two types of NaCl (granulated, flake). Parameters investigated were sensory color, texture, flavor and overall acceptability, and instrumental texture and color during storage at 8°C. Sensory scores for color were acceptable and similar among treatments with varying salt levels, except for products with 1.0% salt. As emulsion stability decreased, however, frankfurter skin color became darker. In general, a reduction in salt by more than 20% (<2.0% salt) resulted in frankfurters of softer and less firm texture. Scores for flavor and overall acceptability were lower (P<0.05) for frankfurters with 1.5% or 1.0% vs 2.5% salt and deteriorated with increasing storage for all salt treatments. Flavor deterioration with storage was more pronounced in products with reduced salt levels (1.5% and 1.0%).     

Effects of Preblending, Reduced Fat and Salt Levels on Frankfurter Characteristics

Frankfurters were manufactured from preblended (PB) or nonpreblended (NPB) meats to contain traditional and reduced levels of salt (1.5, 2.0, or 2.5%) and/or fat (17%= low; 25%= high). Emulsions stability, color, Kramer shear and palatability were evaluated. Salt had a positive effect on emulsion stability (p<0.05). Low-fat frankfurters were darker, redder, less blue in color, drier and more resistant to shear than high-fat frankfurters. Low-fat franks containing 1.5% salt had a softer texture than those containing 2.0 or 2.5% salt. Preblending did not affect textural properties. With modification of the formulations, low fat-low salt franks can be manufactured.     

Physical Characteristics and Microstructure of Reduced-fat Frankfurters as Affected by Salt and Emulsified Fats Stabilized with Nonmeat Proteins

Functional properties and microstructure of frankfurters containing 1.5% or 2.5% salt and 15% pre-emulsified fat (PEF) stabilized with 2% pea protein, soy protein, or sodium caseinate were studied. With the exception of frankfurters with pea protein and 1.5% NaCl, all the others made with PEF" had greater (p < 0.01) thermal stability than all-meat frankfurters. Frankfurters containing soy protein or sodium caseinate had greater (p < 0.01) shear force than those with pea protein. Reducing NaCl in the frankfurters containing PEF did not influence the shear force. Microstructure examination revealed that many fat globules were entrapped physically within soy protein or sodium caseinate, which stabilized the meat emulsions and contributed to a firmer texture. Key Words: emulsified fat, reduced-fat, low-salt, microstructure, frankfurters     

Texture and colour characteristics,and optimisation of sodium chloride,potassium chloride and glycine of reduced-sodium frankfurter

The three-components mixture design was applied to optimise a ratio of NaCl (0%–65%), KCl (35%–100%) and glycine (0%–20%) in reduced-sodium frankfurters. Fourteen frankfurters were analysed for texture and colour, and consumer (n = 100) acceptability. Results indicated that NaCl levels affected consumer acceptability of reduced-sodium frankfurters. Increasing NaCl generally increased texture hardness. Optimisation of a salt mixture was performed by superimposing contour plots of predicted acceptability scores (≥5.5 on a 9-points hedonic scale) of all sensory attributes and revealed the optimal salt mixture: 40.03%–63.66% NaCl, 35.00%–55.90% KCl and 0.00%–20.00% glycine. The optimal salt mixture contained 220–340 mg Na/100g frankfurter compared with 540 mg Na/100 g of the control formulation (100% NaCl). The mean overall liking score (5.9 vs. 5.9) of the optimal reduced-sodium frankfurter was not different from the control (100% NaCl). This optimal formulation had >25% sodium reduction and could be claimed as ‘reduced-sodium’ according to US Food and Drugs Administration regulation.     

Effects of salt level and high hydrostatic pressure processing on frankfurters formulated with 1.5 and 2.5% salt

The effects of salt level and high pressure processing on cook loss, emulsion stability, colour, textural and sensory characteristics of frankfurters were investigated. Two salt levels (1.5 and 2.5%) and two pressure treatments (150 and 300 MPa) were examined. For each batch a control was set up which was non-pressure treated. Cook loss values were significantly decreased in 150 MPa products at the 2.5% salt level compared to controls. Significantly lower cook losses were recorded at the lower salt level after the application of 150 MPa pressure. The stability of the meat emulsions was significantly increased at the lower salt level, especially after 150 MPa pressure. Sensory analysis results for overall flavour acceptability after pressure application of 150 MPa and 300 MPa were similar to control products and panellists preferred products formulated at 1.5% salt after pressure treatment (150 MPa). Hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness were also improved after pressure treatment. The results demonstrate that high pressure technology is a viable process that partially compensates for the reduction of salt levels in frankfurters.     

Optimization of salt, olive oil and pectin level for low-fat frankfurters produced by replacing pork backfat with olive oil

Response surface methodology was used to determine the optimum salt level (1.3-2.1%) and pectin level (0.25-1.0%) when olive oil replaced pork backfat (0-100%) for the production of highly acceptable low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein). The test ingredients significantly affected (P<0.05) jelly separation of the batter, skin strength, hardness, saltiness, odour and taste and the overall acceptability of the low-fat frankfurters. Batters with high pectin levels recorded the highest (P<0.05) jelly separation. Low-fat frankfurters with high salt levels tended to have very hard skins and increased (P<0.05) saltiness while those with a high pectin level were very soft, tasted like cream and had the lowest (P<0.05) score for odour and taste. The low-fat frankfurters with 1.8-2.1% salt, 0-35% olive oil and 0.25-0.45% pectin had the highest overall acceptability. However, low-fat frankfurters produced with 1.3% salt, 0.25-0.30% pectin and 80-100% olive oil were also acceptable. Such low-fat frankfurters, compared to commercial products, have a 48% lower salt content (from 2.5 to 1.3%) and 66.6% lower fat content (from 30 to 10%), in which 80-100% of the added fat is olive oil. Further research is needed to improve the acceptability of these frankfurters.     

Physical and sensory properties of low-salt phosphate-free frankfurters composed with various ingredients

The physical properties and sensory attributes of phosphate-free frankfurters were examined using response surface methodology by varying the amounts of five compositional variables: salt, modified tapioca starch-, sodium citrate (NaC)- and wheat bran and fat in the batter. Altogether, 20 different types of frankfurters were prepared. When the frankfurters were made without phosphate, additional non-meat ingredients were needed at salt contents of less than 1.5%. Modified tapioca starch and sodium citrate decreased frying loss, with the former also improving water and fat binding.     

Effects of three cellulose gums on the texture profile and sensory properties of low fat frankfurters

Composition, textural, viscoelastic, hydration, colour, and sensory attributes of regular and low fat pork/beef frankfurters with and without cellulose gums (carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and two types of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC-I and II)) were investigated. Fat was replaced with water in the low fat products. Moisture loss during cooking was reduced in low fat products from 10 to 6% because of the addition of CMC; however, both MCC increased moisture loss by 12–15%. CMC addition also increased the amount of free water. The high fat product was lighter (higher 'L') than the reduced fat frankfurters; gums did not appreciably change the colour. The viscoelastic properties (relaxation time, elastic moduli) were unaffected by the changes in fat level. Product hardness, brittleness, gumminess and chewiness increased with the decrease in fat level. MCC-II improved the textural properties of the low fat product to those of the high fat product. Sensory panel results indicated a decrease in tenderness with low fat and this was not improved by MCC-II. Overall, acceptability scores indicated that all the products (high and low fat) were acceptable.     

Physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters as affected by walnut and fat content

This study evaluates the physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters with 25% added walnut (WF) versus low-fat frankfurters (6% pork fat) (LF) and traditional frankfurters (18% pork fat) (NF). Results reveal that cooking losses were unaffected (p ? 0.05) by the formulation of frankfurters. The addition of walnut led to higher (p < 0.05) redness and yellowness values, while colour parameters did not differ significantly between LF and NF sausages. Frankfurters with added walnut (WF) presented higher (p < 0.05) hardness and chewiness values than LF and NF frankfurters. Differences in composition were also accompanied by changes in the microstructure of the gel/emulsions. Frankfurters with added walnut presented a flavour significantly different from meat and scored lower (p < 0.05) on texture preferences. However, all frankfurters scored the same for overall acceptability.     

Effects of fat level and maltodextrin on the functional properties of frankfurters formulated with 5, 12 and 30% fat

The effects of fat level (5, 12 and 30%) and maltodextrin on emulsion stability, cook loss, colour, texture and sensory characteristics of frankfurters were investigated. Three fat levels (5, 12 and 30%) were formulated containing added maltodextrin. For each fat level a control was prepared without added maltodextrin giving a total of 6 treatments (3×2 factorial design). Reducing the fat from 30 to 5% increased cook loss and decreased emulsion stability. Panellists detected an increase in juiciness and a decrease in overall texture, overall acceptability when the fat level was reduced from 30 to 5%. Instron texture profile analysis showed a decrease in hardness, chewiness and gumminess and an increase in springiness with decreasing fat level. Maltodextrin addition caused a significant decrease in cook loss of the frankfurters but also decreased the emulsion stability. An interactive effect (P<0.05) occurred between fat level and maltodextrin resulting in no significant difference in hardness, gumminess and chewiness values when maltodextrin was present in the reduced-fat (5 and 12%) frankfurters. Saltiness, overall flavour intensity, overall texture and overall acceptability were unaltered (P>0.05) by maltodextrin. The results indicate that maltodextrin can be used as a suitable fat replacer since it offset some of the changes brought about by fat reduction, decreasing cook loss and maintaining a number of textural and sensory characteristics of the frankfurters.     

Ability to detect and identify the presence of particles influences consumer acceptance of yoghurt

The common practice of particle addition into semisolid foods is known to influence sensory textural properties, but the resulting influence on consumer acceptability is not well understood. A systematic trial was therefore designed, involving a set of nine yoghurt samples, to investigate the effect of particle addition on consumer acceptability. Agar microgels were fabricated and added to yoghurt at varying levels of modulus (210 kPa or 550 kPa, fabricated with 5% or 10% agar, respectively), particle size (30 μm or 100 μm) and particle concentration (2% or 5%, w/w). The yoghurt samples were presented to consumers (n = 117), who rated acceptability, and subsequently selected from the attributes particles, drying, sweet, smooth, no particles and none of these by ‘check all that apply’ (CATA), for each sample. On average, all samples were generally well-liked by consumers, although samples containing 5% (w/w) particles were less acceptable than those containing 2% (w/w) particles. Consumer cluster analysis was used to identify groupings of consumers based on difference in acceptability scores. Acceptability scores for the yoghurts were lower for the consumers who selected the attribute particles in the higher modulus samples. Addition of particles (30 μm or 100 μm) at 550 kPa modulus and 5% (w/w) particles was identified as the threshold of particle detection in this yoghurt system and the point at which acceptability scores declined.     

Optimizing palm oil and palm stearin utilization for sensory and textural properties of chicken frankfurters

This study was designed to explore the potential of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil (PO) and palm stearin (POs) utilization in chicken frankfurters. A 10 points augmented simplex-centroid design was used to study the effect of chicken fat (CF), PO and POs as well as the interaction of these fats on the emulsion, textural and sensory properties of chicken frankfurters. All frankfurters were formulated to contain approx 25% fat, 52% moisture and 10% protein. No significant difference was found in end chopping temperatures of all meat batters even though the temperature of PO and POs upon incorporation into meat batters was 50°C higher than CF. Strong emulsions were formed as no fluid losses were observed in all the meat batters tested after heating. Texture profiles of the frankfurters containing PO and/or CF were quite similar, but increment of POs raised hardness, chewiness, and shear hardness of the frankfurters. Acceptability of the frankfurters was evaluated using hedonic test. Panelists found no difference in hardness preference between frankfurters made from totally CF and PO, while frankfurters made from POs were rated as hard and brittle. CF was important in determining acceptability of the frankfurters, as reduction of CF in formulation resulted in lower scores in chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness and overall acceptance of the frankfurters. Frankfurters with sensory acceptability comparable to a commercial one were found to comprise of more than 17% CF, and less than 67% PO and 17% POs of the fat blend.     

Effect of natural colourants and nitrites on colour attributes of frankfurters

The colour attributes in a control and six more treatments of frankfurters (18% fat) produced with natural colourants and two levels of NaNO(2) (0 and 150 mg/kg) were studied. The following natural colourants, permitted by the EU 94/36 guideline, were used: E 100 curcumin (CU), E 120 carminic acid (CA), E 150a caramel (CR), E 160a beta-carotene (BC), E 160g paprika-extract (PE) and E162 betanin (B). CA, B, BC and PE significantly increased the redness of batter, while BC, PE and CU increased (p<0.05) the yellowness. NaNO(2) decreased (p<0.05) the redness of batters in all treatments. Frankfurters with CA had the highest a* value followed by those with BC, PE and B. BC, PE and B increased the yellowness of frankfurters. NaNO(2) increased (p<0.05) the redness of frankfurters in all treatments. The storage of frankfurters for 4 weeks had no effect on redness and yellowness of frankfurters. Exposure either for 2 h in sunlight or for 4 h in artificial light had no significant effect on redness and yellowness of frankfurters from all treatments. Canned frankfurters (117°) with B had the greatest decrease in redness while those with BC the greatest increase in yellowness. Frankfurters with B were the most acceptable from the consumers according to their colour followed by those with PE. Frankfurters with B had also the highest score for overall acceptability, followed by those with CA and nitrites. By employing discriminant analysis on the data, equations were derived for the identification of the natural colourant used in the production of frankfurters. Results from frankfurters, produced with 0, 3.6, 14.4 and 28.8 mg of pure B kg and 100 and 150 mg/kg NaNO(2), have shown that the level of NaNO(2) can be reduced from 150 to 100 mg/kg with appropriate increase in B level and frankfurters with 14.4 mg B/kg were the most acceptable from the consumers according to their colour.     

Frankfurters with Lean Finely Textured Tissue as Affected by Ingredients

Increasing salt concentration from 1.5 to 2.5% increased the emulsion stability of frankfurters made with lean finely textured tissue (LFTT). Sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) at 0.25% improved stability and texture as well as processing and consumer cooking yields. Kappa (K)-carra-geenan (0.5%) reduced cooking losses and increased firmness. Isolated soy protein (ISP) at 2% also improved product stability and firmness but lowered sensory scores. The effect of ISP on sensory scores was greater for those frankfurters produced from lean finely textured beef than for those with lean finely textured pork. Increasing NaCl concentration or including STPP and K-carrageenan may improve comminuted meat products which contain 50% LFTT substituted for lean meat.     

Quality characteristics of reduced-fat frankfurters with pork fat replaced by sunflower seed oils and dietary fiber extracted from makgeolli lees

The effects of reducing pork fat levels from 30% to 20% by partially substituting pork fat with a mix of sunflower seed oil (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%) and makgeolli lees fiber (2%) were investigated based on physicochemical properties, textural properties, and sensory characteristics of reduced-fat frankfurters. The moisture and ash content, and lightness were higher in reduced-fat frankfurter samples containing sunflower seed oil and makgeolli lees fiber than in the control. The results showed that reduced-fat frankfurter samples with higher sunflower seed oil levels had lower redness and yellowness values, as well as less cooking loss, emulsion stability, hardness, springiness, and apparent viscosity. The results of this study show that incorporating sunflower seed oil and makgeolli lees fiber into the formulation successfully reduced animal fat in frankfurters, while improving quality characteristics.     

Improved Cooking Yields of Meat Batters Formulated with Potassium Sorbate and Reduced Levels of NaCl

The influence of varying NaCl levels (0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0, and 2.4%) on the cooking yield and composition of comminuted meat (beef-pork) products (frankfurters and cans) was tested in the absence and presence of 0.26% potassium sorbate. Parameters measured included frankfurter smokehouse yields and consumer cook losses; product losses in cans; and, moisture and fat contents of the cooked products. Reducing the NaCl level resulted in increased product losses during cooking. Potassium sorbate decreased these losses. Cooking yields at most NaCl levels (≦ 1.6%) tested were improved (P<0.01) with the addition of potassium sorbate. The positive influence of sorbate on product binding could not be attributed to pH or ionic strength changes, but potential mechanisms of sorbate action are discussed.