The effects of tumble and swirl flows on flame propagation in a four-valve S.I. engine

The effects of in-cylinder flow patterns, such as tumble and swirl flows, on combustion were experimentally investigated in a 4-valve S.I. engine. Tumble flows were generated by intake ports with entry angles of 25°, 20° and 15°. Inclined tumble (swirl) flows were induced by two different swirl control valves. The initial flame propagation was visualized by an ICCD camera, the images of which were analyzed to compare the enflamed area and the displacement of initial flames. The combustion duration was also calculated by the heat release analysis.It was found that a correlation existent between the stronger tumble during induction and turbulence levels at the time of ignition results in a faster flame development. As confirmed by flame propagation images and measurements of combustion periods, tumble (swirl) was found to be more effective than pure tumble in effecting rapid and stable combustion under lean mixture conditions.     

The structure of partially premixed methane flames in high-intensity turbulent flows

Direct numerical simulations (DNS) are conducted to study the structure of partially premixed and non-premixed methane flames in high-intensity two-dimensional isotropic turbulent flows. The results obtained via “flame normal analysis” show local extinction and reignition for both non-premixed and partially premixed flames. Dynamical analysis of the flame with a Lagrangian method indicates that the time integrated strain rate characterizes the finite-rate chemistry effects and the flame extinction better than the strain rate. It is observed that the flame behavior is affected by the “pressure-dilatation” and “viscous-dissipation” in addition to strain rate. Consistent with previous studies, high vorticity values are detected close to the reaction zone, where the vorticity generation by the “baroclinic torque” was found to be significant. The influences of (initial) Reynolds and Damköhler numbers, and various air-fuel premixing levels on flame and turbulence variables are also studied. It is observed that the flame extinction occurs similarly in flames with different fuel-air premixing. Our simulations also indicate that the CO emission increases as the partial premixing of the fuel with air increases. Higher values of the temperature, the OH mass fraction and the CO mass fraction are observed within the flame zone at higher Reynolds numbers.     

Autoignited laminar lifted flames of methane, ethylene, ethane, and n-butane jets in coflow air with elevated temperature

The autoignition characteristics of laminar lifted flames of methane, ethylene, ethane, and n-butane fuels have been investigated experimentally in coflow air with elevated temperature over 800 K. The lifted flames were categorized into three regimes depending on the initial temperature and fuel mole fraction: (1) non-autoignited lifted flame, (2) autoignited lifted flame with tribrachial (or triple) edge, and (3) autoignited lifted flame with mild combustion.For the non-autoignited lifted flames at relatively low temperature, the existence of lifted flame depended on the Schmidt number of fuel, such that only the fuels with Sc > 1 exhibited stationary lifted flames. The balance mechanism between the propagation speed of tribrachial flame and local flow velocity stabilized the lifted flames. At relatively high initial temperatures, either autoignited lifted flames having tribrachial edge or autoignited lifted flames with mild combustion existed regardless of the Schmidt number of fuel. The adiabatic ignition delay time played a crucial role for the stabilization of autoignited flames. Especially, heat loss during the ignition process should be accounted for, such that the characteristic convection time, defined by the autoignition height divided by jet velocity was correlated well with the square of the adiabatic ignition delay time for the critical autoignition conditions. The liftoff height was also correlated well with the square of the adiabatic ignition delay time.     

Spark ignition of turbulent recirculating non-premixed gas and spray flames: A model for predicting ignition probability

A model that synthesizes previous knowledge from experiments and simulations on spark ignition of gas and liquid-fuelled non-premixed recirculating flames has been developed. Attention is focused on the flame expansion process and the overall filling of the combustor volume with flame. The model is meant to provide a quick assessment of the ignition behaviour of a combustor. It uses information from the flow patterns before ignition and calculates possible trajectories that a flame emanating from a spark may experience. The calculation of these trajectories includes flame extinction to capture the experimentally-observed flame quenching, mixture fraction fluctuations to capture the non-premixed nature of the flame, convection by the mean and the random turbulent flow to capture the probabilistic nature of the flame evolution, and uses recent results on the laminar burning velocity in sprays. The model is applied to gas and spray flames and the calculated ignition probability distributions and the timescale of complete ignition agree reasonably well with experiment. The results of the model provide insights into spark ignition processes in complicated flow patterns.     

Effects of hydrogen addition on the premixed laminar-flames of ethanol–air gaseous mixtures: An experimental study

The effects of hydrogen addition on the laminar premixed-flame characteristics of ethanol–air gaseous mixtures were investigated experimentally by using outwardly propagating spherical flames. The experiments were conducted in a constant-volume combustion vessel with a central ignition at an initial temperature of 383 K, a pressure of 0.1 MPa, a hydrogen fraction from 0% to 100%, and an equivalence ratio from 0.6 to 1.6, and the flame images were obtained by a high-speed schlieren camera system. The results show that the unstretched flame propagation speeds and burning velocities increase exponentially with the increase in hydrogen fraction for a constant equivalence ratio. When the hydrogen fraction is equal to or less than 60%, the burned gas Markstein length reduces with the increase of equivalence ratio, indicating a positive correlation between the flame instability and hydrogen fraction, while the opposite effect is observed when the hydrogen fraction is greater than 60%. At an equivalence ratio below 1.4, the Markstein length decreases with increased hydrogen fraction, indicating that the flame instability is exacerbated with hydrogen addition, while the reverse holds in the case of equivalence ratio above 1.4. Finally, an empirical formula is developed to estimate the laminar burning velocity of ethanol–hydrogen–air flames on the basis of present experimental data.     

Flame acceleration in the early stages of burning in tubes

Acceleration of premixed laminar flames in the early stages of burning in long tubes is considered. The acceleration mechanism was suggested earlier by Clanet and Searby [Combust. Flame 105 (1996) 225]. Acceleration happens due to the initial ignition geometry at the tube axis when a flame develops to a finger-shaped front, with surface area growing exponentially in time. Flame surface area grows quite fast but only for a short time. The analytical theory of flame acceleration is developed, which determines the growth rate, the total acceleration time, and the maximal increase of the flame surface area. Direct numerical simulations of the process are performed for the complete set of combustion equations. The simulations results and the theory are in good agreement with the previous experiments. The numerical simulations also demonstrate flame deceleration, which follows acceleration, and the so-called “tulip flames.”     

Experimental investigation of the stability and emission characteristics of premixed formic acid-methane-air flames in a swirl combustor

Formic acid (FA) is a potential hydrogen energy carrier and low-carbon fuel by reversing the decomposition products, CO₂ and H_2, back to restore FA without additional carbon release. However, FA-air mixtures feature high ignition energy and low flame speed; hence stabilizing FA-air flames in combustion devices is challenging. This study experimentally investigates the flame stability and emission of swirl flames fueled with pre-vaporized formic acid-methane blends over a wide range of formic acid fuel fractions. Results show that by using a swirl combustor, the premixed formic acid-methane-air flames could be stabilized over a wide range of FA fuel fractions, Reynolds numbers, and swirl numbers. The addition of formic acid increases the equivalence ratios at which the flashback and lean blowout occur. When Reynolds number increases, the equivalence ratio at the flashback limit increases, but that decreases at the lean blowout limit. Increasing the swirl number has a non-monotonic effect on stability limits variation because increasing the swirl number changes the axial velocity on the centerline of the burner throat non-monotonically. In addition, emission characteristics were investigated using a gas analyzer. The CO and NO concentrations were below 20 ppm for all tested conditions, which is comparable to that seen with traditional hydrocarbon fuels, which is in favor of future practical applications with formic acid.     

进气道和燃烧室形状对大缸径天然气发动机缸内流动和燃烧的影响

为了提升采用当量燃烧的大缸径天然气发动机的指示热效率,提出了组织弱涡流、强滚流、高湍流强度的缸内气流运动的理念,据此设计了不同形状的进气道和燃烧室,并采用三维数值模拟的方法研究了进气道和燃烧室形状对缸内流动和燃烧的影响.研究发现:与原机相比,当将原螺旋进气道改为直进气道并配合原缩口型、新的直口型、敞口型和半球型燃烧室时...     

Explosion bomb measurements of ethanol-air laminar gaseous flame characteristics at pressures up to 1.4 MPa

The principal burning characteristics of a laminar flame comprise the fuel vapour pressure, the laminar burning velocity, ignition delay times, Markstein numbers for strain rate and curvature, the stretch rates for the onset of flame instabilities and of flame extinction for different mixtures. With the exception of ignition delay times, measurements of these are reported and discussed for ethanol-air mixtures. The measurements were in a spherical explosion bomb, with central ignition, in the regime of a developed stable, flame between that of an under or over-driven ignition and that of an unstable flame. Pressures ranged from 0.1 to 1.4 MPa, temperatures from 300 to 393 K, and equivalence ratios were between 0.7 and 1.5. It was important to ensure the relatively large volume of ethanol in rich mixtures at high pressures was fully evaporated. The maximum pressure for the measurements was the highest compatible with the maximum safe working pressure of the bomb. Many of the flames soon became unstable, due to Darrieus-Landau and thermo-diffusive instabilities. This effect increased with pressure and the flame wrinkling arising from the instabilities enhanced the flame speed. Both the critical Peclet number and the, more rational, associated critical Karlovitz stretch factor were evaluated at the onset of the instability. With increasing pressure, the onset of flame instability occurred earlier. The measured values of burning velocity are expressed in terms of their variations with temperature and pressure, and these are compared with those obtained by other researchers. Some comparisons are made with the corresponding properties for iso-octane-air mixtures.     

Combustion analysis of a spark ignition engine fueled with gaseous blends containing hydrogen

This paper presents the combustion characteristics of a naturally aspirated spark ignition engine, intended for installation in vehicles, fueled with different hydrogen and methane blends. The experimental tests were carried out in a wide range of speeds at equivalence ratios of 1, 0.8 and 0.7 and at full load. The ignition timing was maintained for each speed, independently of the equivalence ratio and blend used as fuel. Four methane-hydrogen blends were used. In-cylinder pressure, mass fraction burned, heat released and cycle-by-cycle variations were analyzed as representative indicators of the combustion quality. It was observed that hydrogen enrichment of the blend improve combustion for the ignition timing chosen. This improvement is more appreciable at low speeds, because at high speeds hydrogen effect is attenuated by the high turbulence. Also, hydrogen addition allowed the extension of the LOL, enabling the engine to run stable in points where methane could not be tested. The main inconvenience detected was the high NO_x emissions measured, especially at stoichiometric conditions, due mainly to the increment in the combustion temperature that hydrogen produces.     

Experimental study of vortex-flame interaction in a gas turbine model combustor

The interaction of a helical precessing vortex core (PVC) with turbulent swirl flames in a gas turbine model combustor is studied experimentally. The combustor is operated with air and methane at atmospheric pressure and thermal powers from 10 to 35 kW. The flow field is measured using particle image velocimetry (PIV), and the dominant unsteady vortex structures are determined using proper orthogonal decomposition. For all operating conditions, a PVC is detected in the shear layer of the inner recirculation zone (IRZ). In addition, a co-rotating helical vortex in the outer shear layer (OSL) and a central vortex originating in the exhaust tube are found. OH chemiluminescence (CL) images show that the flames are mainly stabilized in the inner shear layer (ISL), where also the PVC is located. Phase-averaged images of OH-CL show that for all conditions, a major part of heat release takes place in a helical zone that is coupled to the PVC. The mechanisms of the interaction between PVC and flame are then studied for the case P = 10 kW using simultaneous PIV and OH-PLIF measurements with a repetition rate of 5 kHz. The measurements show that the PVC causes a regular sequence of flame roll-up, mixing of burned and unburned gas, and subsequent ignition of the mixture in the ISL. These effects are directly linked to the periodic vortex motions. A phase-averaged analysis of the flow field further shows that the PVC induces an unsteady lower stagnation point that is not present in the average flow field. The motion of the stagnation point is linked to the periodic precession of the PVC. Near this point burned and unburned gas collide frontally and a significant amount of heat release takes place. The flame dynamics near this point is also coupled to the PVC. In this way, a part of the reaction zone is periodically drawn from the stagnation point into the ISL, and thus serves as an ignition source for the reactions in this layer. In total, the effects in the ISL and at the stagnation point showed that the PVC plays an essential role in the stabilization mechanism of the turbulent swirl flames. In contrast to the PVC, the vortices in the OSL and near the exhaust tube have no direct effect on the flame since they are located outside the flame zone.     

利用离子信号计算已燃质量分数

在定容燃烧弹中分别用离子信号和压力对已燃质量分数进行了研究,通过对点火电极附近离子信号的研究表明,其信号分别在点火、火焰前锋与后区中存在3个峰值。利用从点火到达火焰前锋与后区两个峰值的时间间隔以及所测量的压力值分别计算了已燃质量分数,其结果表明,两方法所计算出的已燃质量分数比较一致,当相对空燃比等于1时,已燃质量分数曲线较为陡峭;而当其偏离1时,曲线逐渐平坦,并且起始位置也愈加滞后,选取系数为0.98的计算结果表明,当相对空燃比在0.9～1.1附近时,两者计算结果的最大差值小于10%。     

Swirl effects on harmonically excited,premixed flame kinematics

This paper describes the response of a swirling premixed flame with constant burning velocity to non-axisymmetric harmonic excitation. This work extends prior studies of axisymmetric forcing, which have shown that wrinkles are excited on the flame that propagate downstream along the mean flame surface at a speed given by U_o cos ψ, where U_o is the mean flow velocity and ψ is the flame angle. The swirl component in the flow field introduces an azimuthal transport mechanism for disturbances on the flame. As such, the flame response at any given position is a superposition of flame wrinkles excited at earlier times, upstream axial locations, and different azimuthal positions. These swirl transport effects do not arise in problems where axisymmetric flames are subjected to axisymmetric excitation, but enter quite prominently in the presence of non-axisymmetries, such as when the flame is subjected to transverse excitation. The solution characteristics are strongly dependent upon the ratio of angular rotation rate to excitation frequency, denoted by σ = Ω/ω, which describes the fraction of azimuthal rotation a disturbance makes in one acoustic period. When σ ? 1 and σ ? 1, the axial wavelength of flame wrinkles scales with the convective wavelength, λ_c, but becomes much longer for σ ～ O(1). The spatial variation in phase of flame wrinkling is also strongly dependent upon σ. Regardless of swirl number, flame wrinkles propagate in helical spirals along the solution characteristics at a phase speed equal to the local tangential velocity. The axial phase characteristics of flame wrinkling at a fixed azimuthal location, as would be measured by laser sheet imaging, are much more complex. For σ < 1, the wrinkles exhibit the familiar negative roll-off character for the phase with axial downstream distance, indicative of an axially convecting disturbance. The slope of this phase roll-off decreases with increasing σ, however, and becomes zero at σ = 1 for a compact flame. For σ > 1, the wrinkles actually have a positive roll-off character for the phase with axial downstream distance, indicating a flame wrinkle with a negative trace velocity, but whose actual propagation velocity is positive. Finally, these results show that while the flame response to transverse acoustic excitation is quite strong locally, its spatially integrated effect is much smaller for acoustically compact flames. This suggests that the dominant mechanism through which the flame responds globally to transverse excitation is the induced vortical and longitudinal acoustic fluctuations.     

Axisymmetric versus non-axisymmetric flames in cylindrical tubes

The assumption of an axisymmetric flame shape is a typical compromise when the three-dimensional curved flame structure cannot be resolved because of numerical limitations. However, as demonstrated in the present paper, such an assumption is not realistic for the usual numerical configuration of a flame propagating in an “ideal” tube with no heat transfer to the walls. The stability of the axisymmetric flames (both convex and concave) is investigated with respect to non-axisymmetric perturbations. The eigenvalue stability problem is solved for different tube widths and thermal expansions of the burning matter. It is shown that the axisymmetric flames are unstable for any tube width in the case of realistically large thermal expansion. The obtained instability is stronger for concave than for convex flames. When thermal expansion is small, the axisymmetric flames are also found to be unstable for all tube radii of interest. This result agrees only in part with previous simulations of axisymmetric/non-axisymmetric flames in cylindrical tubes within the limit of ultimately small thermal expansion. Possible reasons for the disagreement are discussed. It is also demonstrated that thermal losses to the walls modify the flame shape. The critical level of the losses is obtained at which the axisymmetric flame shape is restored.     

Oscillatory response of an idealized two-dimensional diffusion flame: Analytical and numerical study

The heat release response of a two-dimensional (2-D) co-flow diffusion flame is theoretically investigated for the mass fraction fluctuations of reactant concentration at the inlet boundary and for time-varying spatially uniform flow velocity field in the domain. The present work is an extension of the Burke-Schumann steady flame model to an oscillatory situation, but in a 2-D framework. The governing equation of the problem is the scalar advection equation for the Schwab-Zel'dovich variable. An exact solution is found in terms of an infinite series for the case of mixture fraction fluctuations at the inlet boundary. The cases of time-varying uniform flow velocity field and a combination of velocity and mixture fraction fluctuations are investigated numerically. The temperature and heat release rate of the flame are thermodynamically calculated utilizing the mixed-is-burnt approach. The main results of the paper are the response functions. The nonlinearity in the calculation of the heat release rate and the convective nonlinearity due to velocity fluctuations result in the generation of higher harmonics in the response function for a given sinusoidal excitation. Therefore, the response function is decomposed and obtained for each of the significant harmonics. The results show that, in general, the response function decreases with increase in the excitation frequency as reported with premixed flames in the literature. However, in the present case, the decrease occurs when the excitation time-scale is less than the diffusion time-scale. Interesting flame shape variations such as flame clip-off, flipping between overexpanded and underexpanded conditions, and flame wrinkling are observed in the case of mixture fraction oscillations.     

Stable negative edge flame formation in a counterflow burner

In nonpremixed combustion, edge flames can form as a region of flame propagation or flame recession. Forwardly propagating edge flames, as occur in lifted flames, have a local gas velocity at the flame edge that is from unburned partially premixed fuel and air into the flame. These flames represent an ignition process, and permit the flame itself to either stabilize against an incoming gas stream or propagate into unburned fuel and air. Negative edge flames represent the opposite case of a local gas velocity from burned products through the flame edge. The negative edge flame represents a local extinction process, and occurs, for example, during vortex-induced extinction of a nonpremixed flame sheet. A technique for generating steady negative edge flames in a standard counterflow burner is presented, which permits detailed examination of their properties. A coannular counterflow burner is used to create a strain gradient that quenches a central diffusion flame. Unlike previous research on strain-induced flame edges, the axisymmetric flow field ensures gas flow from products through the edge. Measurements of the edge flame's sensitivity to global strain rates and fuel mixtures are presented, along with measurements of the edge flame structure using OH fluorescence and CH emission imaging.     

Study on octane number dependence of PRF/air weak flames at 1–5 atm in a micro flow reactor with a controlled temperature profile

Combustion and ignition characteristics of a stoichiometric gaseous Primary Reference Fuel (blended fuel of n-heptane and iso-octane, PRF)/air mixture were investigated by using a micro flow reactor with a controlled temperature profile.By changing the mixture flow velocity at the inlet of the reactor, three kinds of flames were observed: normal propagating flame in a high flow velocity region; unstable flames, named flames with repetitive extinction and ignition (FREI), in an intermediate flow velocity region; and stable multiple weak flames in a low flow velocity region. In the weak flame phenomenon, multi-stage oxidation process of the fuel in a wide temperature range from 600 to 1200 K can be observed as separated multiple stationary flames. Focusing on this low flow velocity condition, weak flame responses to octane number under atmospheric pressure were examined using PRFs with various octane numbers. As octane number increased, luminosity from low temperature oxidation was decreased and the main reaction shifted to the high temperature region. The capability of the present reactor for examination of the general ignition characteristics of various fuels was demonstrated.In addition, pressure dependence of the weak flames was investigated using PRFs with various octane numbers. Low temperature oxidation exhibited more significant heat release under elevated pressure, and this change was dependent on the octane number.To examine the experimental results, one-dimensional steady computation was conducted using detailed reaction kinetics. Computational results reproduced the tendencies of the experimental results qualitatively.Both the experimental and computational results indicate the advantage of the separate investigation of the oxidation process in each temperature region, which can be realized only by the present micro flow reactor, to obtain a detailed understanding of the ignition characteristics of practical fuels.     

Experimental study on the interactions for bluff-body and swirl in stabilized flame process

This paper focuses on investigating the interaction effects for swirl and bluff-body in stabilized flame process. Particle image velocimetry was used to measure velocity fields in three burners. First, the comparison of flames in bluff-body stabilized burners with and without swirl is presented. The results of the experiments present the variations of bluff-body stabilized flame when swirl is added into burner: the maximum reverse flow velocity and the maximum mean average radial velocity decrease; the maximum radial rootmean squared fluctuating (rms) velocity increases; the values of the axial velocity peak on the side of nozzle axis are lower, and the distance between the peak and centerline is bigger; the location of the maximum radial rms velocity moves to the outlet of annular air-flow from central recirculation zone (CRZ). Then, the comparison of flames in swirl burners with and without bluff-body is provided. The results of the experiments show the changes of swirling flame when bluff-body is added into swirl burner: the air vortex in the CRZ moves to the burner; the peak values of axial mean and rms velocity decrease; the distance between centerline and the mean axial and rms velocity peak increase; the peak of mean radial velocity decreases, and the peak of rms raidial velocity increase. The data from this experiment can also be established as benchmarks for the development and validation of combustion numerical simulations.