Effects of Annealing Temperature on Microstructure and Tensile Properties in Ferritic Lightweight Steels

An investigation was conducted into the effects of annealing temperature on microstructure and tensile properties of ferritic lightweight steels. Two steels were fabricated by varying the C content, and were annealed at 573 K to 1173 K (300 °C to 900 °C) for 1 hour. According to the microstructural analysis results, κ-carbides were formed at about 973 K (700 °C), which was confirmed by equilibrium phase diagrams calculated from a THERMO-CALC program. In the steel containing low carbon content, needle-shaped κ-carbides were homogeneously dispersed in the ferrite matrix, whereas bulky band-shaped martensites were distributed in the steel containing high carbon content. In the 973 K (700 °C)-annealed specimen of the steel containing high carbon content, deformation bands were formed throughout the specimen, while fine carbides were sufficiently deformed inside the deformation bands, thereby resulting in the greatest level of strength and ductility. These results indicated that the appropriate annealing treatment of steel containing high carbon content was useful for the improvement of both strength and ductility over steel containing low carbon content.     

Microstructure Evolution and Precipitation Behavior of 0Cr16Ni5Mo Martensitic Stainless Steel during Tempering Process

The microstructure,morphology of precipitates and retained austenite and the volume fraction of retained austenite in 0Cr16Ni5 Mo stainless steel during the tempering process were analyzed using optical microscope(OM),transmission electron microscope(TEM),X-ray diffraction(XRD)and scanning transmission electron microscope(STEM).The results show that the microstructure of the tempered steel is mainly composed of tempered martensite,retained austenite,and delta ferrite.In the case of samples tempered from 500 to 700 ℃,the precipitates are mainly M_(23)C_6,which precipitate along the lath martensite boundaries.The precipitate content increases with the tempering temperature.During the tempering process,the content of retained austenite initially increases and then decreases,the maximum content of retained austenite being 29 vol.% upon tempering at 600 ℃.TEM analysis of the tested steel reveals two morphology types of retained austenite.One is thin film-like retained austenite that exists along the martensite lath boundary.The other is blocky austenite located on packet at the boundary and the original austenite grain boundary.To further understand the stability of reversed austenite,the Ni content in reversed austenite was measured using STEM.Results show a significant difference in nickel concentrations between reversed austenite and martensite.     

The Investigation for Development on Precipitation Phases in 25Co15Ni11Cr2MoE Steel during Tempering

The evolution law of precipitated alloy carbides and reverted austenite in a high Co-Ni secondary hardening ultra-high strength 25Co15Ni11Cr2MoE steel tempered at 300??~ 660?? after quenched has been studied by means of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X ray diffraction (XRD) in this paper. The results show that the precipitate order of alloy carbides with the increasing of tempering temperature from 300?? to 600?? in experimental steel is: dispersed ??-carbides?? lamellar alloy cementites?? dispersed M2C carbides?? coarse M23C6 carbides. When the experimental steel tempering at 495??, fine M2C carbides precipitated on the lath martensite matrix. Meanwhile, coarse lamellar alloy cementites that precipitated during the early tempering stage has all dissolved, and reverted austenite precipitated at the boundaries of lath martensite and grows up into thin-film sharp along the lath boundaries. When the tempering temperature rose to 530??, the content of reverted austenite continues to increase, but the morphology of reverted austenite changed from thin-film to strip or block. When the tempering temperature rose to 530??, the content of reverted austenite in the steel reaches maximum value.     

回火温度对淬火后30MnB5热成形钢组织与性能影响

将30MnB5热成形钢进行淬火和回火处理,利用扫描电镜、透射电镜、能谱仪和拉伸性能检测等方法研究了不同回火温度后的显微组织和力学性能变化.经200℃保温2 min回火后热成形钢的综合力学性能最佳,抗拉强度为1774 MPa,总伸长率为8%,强塑积达14 GPa·%以上,该性能满足热成形后作为汽车结构件的使用要求;并且随着回火温度的升高,力学性能呈非单调性变化.200℃低温回火后,主要为板条马氏体和ε碳化物,位错密度略有降低,析出的ε碳化物粒子呈针状分布在马氏体板条内,长度方向大小为100 nm左右,并与位错发生钉扎作用.随着回火温度的升高,板条马氏体发生回复和再结晶,板条边界逐渐模糊,并向等轴状铁素体转变,位错密度显著降低,ε碳化物逐渐向低能态的近球形渗碳体转变并粗化至200 nm左右,对位错的钉扎作用也随之减弱.     

Microstructure-strength relations in a hardenable stainless steel with 16 pct Cr, 1.5 pct Mo,and 5 pct Ni

Metallographic studies have been conducted on a 0.024 pct C-16 pct Cr-1.5 pct Mo-5 pct Ni stainless steel to study the phase reactions associated with heat treatments and investigate the strengthening mechanisms of the steel. In the normalized condition, air cooled from 1010 °C, the microstructure consists of 20 pct ferrite and 80 pct martensite. Tempering in a temperature range between 500 and 600 °C results in a gradual transformation of martensite to a fine mixture of ferrite and austenite. At higher tempering temperatures, between 600 and 800 °C, progressively larger quantities of austenite form and are converted during cooling to proportionally increasing amounts of fresh martensite. The amount of retained austenite in the microstructure is reduced to zero at 800 °C, and the microstructure contains 65 pct re-formed martensite and 35 pct total ferrite. Chromium rich M₂₃C₆ carbides precipitate in the single tempered microstructures. The principal strengthening is produced by the presence of martensite in the microstructure. Additional strengthening is provided by a second tempering treatment at 400 °C due to the precipitation of ultrafine (Cr, Mo) (C,N) particles in the ferrite.     

Effect of Mn Addition on Microstructural Modification and Cracking Behavior of Ferritic Light-Weight Steels

In the present study, effects of Mn addition on cracking phenomenon occurring during cold rolling of ferritic light-weight steels were clarified in relation to microstructural modification involving κ-carbide, austenite, and martensite. Four steels were fabricated by varying Mn contents of 3 to 12 wt pct, and edge areas of steel sheets containing 6 to 9 wt pct Mn were cracked during the cold rolling. The steels were basically composed of ferrite and austenite in a band shape, but a considerable amount of κ-carbide or martensite existed in the steels containing 3 to 6 wt pct Mn. Microstructural observation of the deformed region of fractured tensile specimens revealed that cracks which were initiated at ferrite/martensite interfacial κ-carbides readily propagated along ferrite/martensite interfaces or into martensite areas in the steel containing 6 wt pct Mn, thereby leading to the center or edge cracking during the cold rolling. In the steel containing 9 wt pct Mn, edge cracks were found in the final stage of cold rolling because of the formation of martensite by the strain-induced austenite to martensite transformation, whereas they were hardly formed in the steel containing 12 wt pct Mn. To prevent or minimize the cracking, it was recommended that the formation of martensite during the cooling from the hot rolling temperature or during the cold rolling should be suppressed, which could be achieved by the enhancement of thermal or mechanical stability of austenite with decreasing austenite grain size or increasing contents of austenite stabilizers.     

Retained Austenite Transformation during Heat Treatment of a 5 Wt Pct Cr Cold Work Tool Steel

Retained austenite transformation was studied for a 5 wt pct Cr cold work tool steel tempered at 798 K and 873 K (525 °C and 600 °C) followed by cooling to room temperature. Tempering cycles with variations in holding times were conducted to observe the mechanisms involved. Phase transformations were studied with dilatometry, and the resulting microstructures were characterized with X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. Tempering treatments at 798 K (525 °C) resulted in retained austenite transformation to martensite on cooling. The martensite start (M _s ) and martensite finish (M _f ) temperatures increased with longer holding times at tempering temperature. At the same time, the lattice parameter of retained austenite decreased. Calculations from the M _s temperatures and lattice parameters suggested that there was a decrease in carbon content of retained austenite as a result of precipitation of carbides prior to transformation. This was in agreement with the resulting microstructure and the contraction of the specimen during tempering, as observed by dilatometry. Tempering at 873 K (600 °C) resulted in precipitation of carbides in retained austenite followed by transformation to ferrite and carbides. This was further supported by the initial contraction and later expansion of the dilatometry specimen, the resulting microstructure, and the absence of any phase transformation on cooling from the tempering treatment. It was concluded that there are two mechanisms of retained austenite transformation occurring depending on tempering temperature and time. This was found useful in understanding the standard tempering treatment, and suggestions regarding alternative tempering treatments are discussed.     

Effect of Heat Treatment on Reversed Austenite in Cr15 Super Martensitic Stainless Steel

 The effect of different heat treatments on the reversed austenite in Cr15 super martensitic stainless steel was investigated. The experimental results indicate that the microstructure of the steel is composed of tempered martensite and diffused reversed austenite after quenching at 1050 ℃ and tempering from 550 to 750 ℃. The volume fraction and size of reversed austenite increase with increasing tempering temperature and both of them reach the maximum value at 700 ℃. The volume fraction and size of reversed austenite decrease when the temperature is above 700 ℃. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) results indicate that the orientation relationship between tempered martensite and reversed austenite belongs to Kurdjmov-Sach (K-S) relationship.     

Evaluation of Microstructural and Mechanical Behaviours of Tempered 2.25Cr–1Mo Steel Through Electromagnetic Characterization

The effect of tempering treatment has been investigated on water quenched P22 steel with the chemical composition of 0.13C, 0.24Si, 0.47Mn, 0.012P, 0.005S, 2.19Cr, 0.93Mo and balance Fe (all in wt%) within the temperature ranges of 650–900 °C. The microstructural, mechanical and magnetic properties of as-quenched and tempered steels have been investigated through optical and scanning electron microscopy, hardness and universal tensile testing, electromagnetic sensor (Magstar), respectively. The water quenched sample consists of fine martensitic structure with a hardness of 381 HV. With the progress of tempering, the martensite becomes coarse till 800 °C, decreasing the hardness of steel samples. The tempering at 700 °C results in martensite coarsening and precipitation of rod and globular shaped carbides; while a fraction of globular carbide is observed to increase in the matrix after 750 °C of tempering. Beyond 800 °C, the ferrite and bainite phases gradually form by replacing martensite, and the ferrite structure is prevalent after 900 °C. Due to microstructural changes, the magnetic properties are also affected as a function of tempering temperature. The coarsening of martensite causes the decrease in coercivity with increasing tempering temperature, leading to magnetic softening.     

Strong and Ductile Martensitic Steels for Automotive Applications

The limits of strength and ductility of a medium‐carbon silicon chromium spring steel are investigated for the case of conventional heat treatment including austenitization, quenching and tempering. The effect of phosphorus and austenite deformation prior to quenching was studied by measuring mechanical properties after quenching and tempering and by microstructural investigation. Strong influence of phosphorus on the ductility is observed for the quenched and tempered martensite without prior austenite deformation. The minimum in ductility found after tempering at 350°C is explained by the formation of cementite and grain boundary segregation of phosphorus. Two thermomechanical treatments were tested involving different austenite conditions produced by variation of the deformation temperature. The deformed conditions, recrystallized or work‐hardened, exhibit higher ductility at all tempering temperatures tested. A combined thermomechanical treatment is proposed that provides the highest ductility after tempering at 300°C independent of the phosphorus content. All thermomechanical treatments described in this study refine or eliminate carbide films at prior austenite grain boundaries. It was found possible to increase the tensile strength and the fatigue limit by deformation of austenite prior to quenching while maintaining or increasing the ductility level.     

The mechanical stability of austenite and cryogenic toughness of ferritic Fe-Mn-AI Alloys

In an attempt to understand the role of retained austenite on the cryogenic toughness of a ferritic Fe-Mn-AI steel, the mechanical stability of austenite during cold rolling at room temperature and tensile deformation at ambient and liquid nitrogen temperature was investigated, and the microstructure of strain-induced transformation products was observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The volume fraction of austenite increased with increasing tempering time and reached 54 pct after 650 °C, 1-hour tempering and 36 pct after 550 °C, 16-hour tempering. Saturation Charpy impact values at liquid nitrogen temperature were increased with decreasing tempering temperature, from 105 J after 650 °C tempering to 220 J after 550 °C tempering. The room-temperature stability of austenite varied significantly according to the(α + γ) region tempering temperature;i.e., in 650 °C tempered specimens, 80 to 90 pct of austenite were transformed to lath martensite, while in 550 °C tempered specimens, austenite remained untransformed after 50 pct cold reductions. After tensile fracture (35 pct tensile strain) at -196 °C, no retained austenite was observed in 650 °C tempered specimens, while 16 pct of austenite and 6 pct of e-martensite were observed in 550 °C tempered specimens. Considering the high volume fractions and high mechanical stability of austenite, the crack blunting model seems highly applicable for improved cryogenic toughness in 550 °C tempered steel. Other possible toughening mechanisms were also discussed. Formerly Graduate Student, Seoul National University.     

Mechanism of Secondary Hardening in Rapid Tempering of Dual-Phase Steel

Dual-phase steel with ferrite-martensite-bainite microstructure exhibited secondary hardening in the subcritical heat affected zone during fiber laser welding. Rapid isothermal tempering conducted in a Gleeble simulator also indicated occurrence of secondary hardening at 773 K (500 °C), as confirmed by plotting the tempered hardness against the Holloman–Jaffe parameter. Isothermally tempered specimens were characterized by analytic transmission electron microscopy and high-angle annular dark-field imaging. The cementite (Fe₃C) and TiC located in the bainite phase of DP steel decomposed upon rapid tempering to form needle-shaped Mo₂C (aspect ratio ranging from 10 to 25) and plate-shaped M₄C₃ carbides giving rise to secondary hardening. Precipitation of these thermodynamically stable and coherent carbides promoted the hardening phenomenon. However, complex carbides were only seen in the tempered bainite and were not detected in the tempered martensite. The martensite phase decomposed into ferrite and spherical Fe₃C, and interlath-retained austenite decomposed into ferrite and elongated carbide.     

热处理对超级13Cr不锈钢组织及拉伸性能的影响

 为了研究热处理工艺对超级13Cr不锈钢组织及拉伸性能的影响,采用了光学显微镜、X射线衍射仪、透射电子显微镜、显微硬度测试及应变速率拉伸等试验方法。结果表明,经过水淬和油淬处理的超级13Cr不锈钢组织及拉伸性能相差不大。但相比于水淬,采用油淬的试样经回火处理后塑性得到更大提升。淬火试样经回火处理后,组织变为回火索氏体。随着回火温度升高,材料的塑性先增加后减小,硬度与强度变化则相反。620 ℃回火试样含有逆变奥氏体,强度塑性组合较好。二次回火能够增加超级13Cr不锈钢中逆变奥氏体含量,但塑性变化不明显,强度下降较大。     

70Si3MnCrMo钢中贝氏体及其回火稳定性

 对一种新型70Si3MnCrMo钢进行了等温和连续冷却贝氏体相变热处理。利用拉伸和冲击试验研究试验钢的力学行为,利用XRD、SEM和TEM等方法对试验钢进行了相组成分析和微观组织形貌观察。研究结果表明,试验钢经等温贝氏体相变,其最佳综合力学性能出现在200 ℃回火,强塑积为26.4 GPa·%。经连续冷却贝氏体相变,其最佳综合力学性能出现在300 ℃回火,强塑积达到28.6 GPa·%。回火温度较低的情况下,热处理后的组织为由贝氏体铁素体和残余奥氏体组成的无碳化物贝氏体组织,这种无碳化物贝氏体由超细贝氏体铁素体板条而获得超高强度,由一定量的高碳残余奥氏体来保证较高的塑性和韧性。试验钢经连续冷却贝氏体相变,其贝氏体铁素体板条中出现了超细亚单元,并且残余奥氏体呈薄膜状和小块状两种形态分布于贝氏体铁素体板条之间,这两种形态残余奥氏体的稳定性不同。拉伸试样在变形过程中残余奥氏体持续发生TRIP效应,直至全部残余奥氏体都发生转变生成应变诱发马氏体,从而使钢得到更好的强、塑性配合,表现出十分优异的综合性能。     

405不锈钢高温组织转变研究

通过热膨胀法以及Thermo-Calc热力学计算软件对SA240-405不锈钢铁素体向奥氏体转变的温度进行了测量和计算。进一步结合淬火与回火热处理,分析了405不锈钢在高温下组织随温度与时间的变化关系。研究结果表明,405不锈钢铁素体向奥氏体开始转变的温度为795~832℃,转变终了温度为910~925℃。温度高于1 050℃,随温度升高,奥氏体逐渐向铁素体转变,淬火后的马氏体含量降低。在950及980℃淬火,得到的组织为马氏体与铁素体的双相组织,淬火时间为30~60 min得到的硬度较高;进一步延长淬火时间,硬度逐渐降低。在730℃回火后得到的组织为铁素体与回火马氏体,无明显残余奥氏体,回火后组织的硬度随时间延长逐渐降低。     

The tensile properties of an Fe-4 pct Mo-0.2 pct C martensite tempered under applied stress

In Fe-4 pct Mo-0.2 pct C martensite which is a typical secondary hardening steel, premature failure o°Curred in tensile test at 600 °C to 700°C where solute atoms could diffuse easily. To clarify this phenomenon, the quenched specimens were tempered under applied stress and tensile-tested at room temperature. The following results were obtained: (1) Typical intergranular fracture was observed in specimens tempered in a temperature range of 600 °C to 650 °C with tempering times of five minutes to 10 minutes and applied stress (70 MPa to 140 MPa). (2) Based on Auger analysis, this phenomenon was considered to be caused by segregation of P, S, and Mo on prior austenite grain boundaries due to applied stress. (3) The direction of applied stress was found to be very significant. Namely, when the tensile direction was parallel to the applied stress during tempering, the specimen was more brittle, and when tensile direction was normal to the applied stress, the specimen was not so brittle. (4) To reduce this embrittlement, solution treatment temperature was adjusted, and it was found that the embrittlement was considerably reduced both in specimens with fine prior austenite grains and with some ferrite phase on prior austenite grain boundaries. TAKATOSHI OGAWA, formerly with Kyoto University. YOSHIFUMI OHMURA, formerly with Kyoto University. This paper is based on a presentation made at the “pcter G. Winchell Symposium on Tempering of Steel” held at the Louisville Meeting of The Metallurgical Society of AIME, October 12-13, 1981, under the sponsorship of the TMS-AIME Ferrous Metallurgy and Heat Treatment Committees.     

Effect of phosphorus on the formation of retained austenite and mechanical properties in Si-containing low-carbon steel sheet

The effect of phosphorus and silicon on the formation of retained austenite has been investigated in a low-carbon steel cold rolled, intercritically annealed, and isothermally held in a temperature range of bainitic transformation followed by air cooling. The steel sheet containing phosphorus after final heat-treatment consisted of ferrite, retained austenite, and bainite or martensite. Phosphorus, especially in the presence of silicon, in steel was useful to assist the formation of retained austenite. Mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, uniform elongation, and the combination of tensile strength/ductility, were improved when phosphorus was increased up to 0.07 pct in 0.5 pct Si steel. This could be attributed to the strain-induced transformation of retained austenite during tensile deformation. Furthermore, two types of retained austenite were observed in P-containing steel. One is larger than about 1 μm in size and usually exists adjacent to bainite; the other one is of submicron size and usually exists in a ferrite matrix. High phosphorus content promotes the formation of stable (small size) austenites which are considered to be stabilized mainly by their small size effect and have a different formation mechanism from the coarser retained austenite in the lower P steels. The retained austenites of submicron size showed mechanical stability even after 10 pct deformation, suggesting that these small austenites have little effect on ductility. The 0.07 pct P-0.5 pct Si-1.5 pct Mn-0.12 pct C steel showed a high strength of 730 MPa and a total elongation of 36 pct.     

Evaluation of Interface Boundaries in 9Cr-1Mo Steel After Thermal and Thermomechanical Treatments

The grain boundary character distribution (GBCD) and microstructure in 9Cr-1Mo ferritic/martensitic steel subjected to different heat treatments and thermomechanical treatments (TMTs) have been evaluated using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique. Microstructures obtained through displacive transformation of high-temperature austenite yielded higher amounts of Σ1-29 coincidence site lattice (CSL) boundaries (from 29 to 38 pct) compared with the ferrite grains obtained by diffusional transformation (~16 pct) or by recrystallization process (~14 pct). Specifically, the low-angle (Σ1), Σ3, Σ11, and Σ25b boundaries were enhanced in the tempered martensite substructure, whereas the prior austenite grain boundaries were largely of random type. Misorientation between the product ferrite variants for ideal orientation relationships during austenite transformation was calculated and compared with CSL misorientation to find its proximity based on Brandon’s criteria. The observed enhancements in Σ1, Σ3, and Σ11 could be interpreted based on Kurdjumov–Sachs (K–S) relation, but Nishiyama–Wassermann (N–W) relation was needed to understand Σ25b formation. The amounts of CSL boundaries in the tempered martensite structure were not significantly influenced by austenite grain size or the kinetics of martensitic transformation. In mixed microstructures of “polygonal ferrite + tempered martensite”, the frequencies of CSL boundaries were found to systematically decrease with increasing amounts of diffusional/recrystallized ferrite.     

回火温度对COST-FB2转子钢析出相与力学性能的影响

 为了调整COST-FB2转子钢的强韧性,采用OM、SEM和TEM等手段研究了回火温度对COST-FB2转子钢的析出相类型与力学性能的影响。结果表明,随着回火温度由350 ℃升高到750 ℃,试验钢的强度、硬度不断下降,塑性和冲击功上升;试验钢350 ℃和570 ℃回火后的高强低韧性可通过再次在700 ℃回火改善。淬火后COST-FB2转子钢中的残余奥氏体,可通过在570 ℃回火消除;在350 ℃和570 ℃回火后马氏体板条内部有大量针状的M₃C,700 ℃回火后的显微组织中M₃C消失,M₂₃C₆在原奥氏体晶界和马氏体板条界上析出,750 ℃回火后晶界上的M₂₃C₆有聚集粗化的现象,部分马氏体板条存在回复现象。     

Structure and mechanical and corrosion properties of new high-nitrogen Cr-Mn steels containing molybdenum

The structure, mechanical properties, and pitting corrosion of nickel-free high-nitrogen (0.8% N) austenitic 06Kh18AG19M2 and 07Kh16AG13M3 steels have been studied in various structural states obtained after hot deformation, quenching, and tempering at 300 and 500°C. Both steels are shown to be resistant to the ?? ?? ?? and ?? ?? ? martensite transformations irrespective of the decomposition of a ?? solid solution (06Kh18AG19M2 steel). Austenite of the steel with 19 wt % Mn shows lower resistance to recrystallization, which provides its higher plasticity (??₅) and fracture toughness at a lower strength as compared to the steel with 13 wt % Mn. Electrochemical studies of the steels tempered at 300 and 500°C show that they are in a stable passive state during tests in a 3.5% NaCl solution and have high pitting resistance up to a potential E _pf = 1.3?C1.4 V, which is higher than that in 12Kh18N10T steel. In the quenched state, the passive state is instable but pitting formation potentials E _pf retain their values. In all steels under study, pitting is shown to form predominantly along the grain boundaries of nonrecrystallized austenite. The lowest pitting resistance is demonstrated by the structure with a double grain boundary network that results from incomplete recrystallization at 1100°C and from the existence of initial and recrystallized austenite in the 07Kh16AG13M3 steel. To obtain a set of high mechanical and corrosion properties under given rolling conditions (1200?C1150°C), annealing of the steels at temperatures no less than 1150°C (for 1 h) with water quenching and tempering at 500°C for 2 h are recommended.