Safflower,its development and utilization

Summary Safflower, a relatively insignificant oilseed crop early in this decase, has become a well-established source of oil for the surface-coatings industry and protein for animal feeds. Through extensive breeding programs, higher yielding, higher oil-bearing varieties have been developed. Research in agronomy is now directed toward improving resistance to rust and root rot in order to allow safflower to be grown as an irrigated crop. The oil's composition, which is largely made up of linoleic acid with a practical absence of linolenic acid, results in very nearly an ideal drying oil. Protective coatings made with safflower oil are characterized by rapid dry, good through-dry, excellent coloer and color retention, and good exterior durability. Recent interest in the unsaturated vegetable oils and their relation to the etiology of atherosclerosis has catalyzed the development of an edible grade of the oil. Safflower oil with approximately 75% linoleic acid and less than 10% saturated acids compares quite advantageously with other liquid oils for use as a dietary supplement. With the proper use of antioxidants, good flavor stability and resistance to oxidative deterioration is achieved. This qualifies safflower oil for use as a salad oil and as an ingredient in many food and pharmaceutical products. Prepress-solvent-extraction operations result in an 18–21% protein meal, which is consumed primarily in dairy cattle feed. Decortication of the seed, now feasible, yields a 40% protein meal suitable for laying-hen rations.     

Utilization of Malaysian palm oil and palm kernel oil for fatty acids and derivatives

Malaysia produces ca. 65% of the world’s palm oil, or (in 1982) ca. 3,500,000 metric tons. By 1985, this will increase to 80% of world production, or ca. 4,800,000 metric tons. Palm oil products are refined, bleached and deodorized oil for edible purposes, palm olein for edible use, palm stearin for edible or industrial use, and the acid oil or fatty acid distillate for industrial uses. The Malaysian processors naturally want to upgrade the products as much as possible.     

Safflower oil

Summary A brief account is given of experiments with safflower oil in Australia. Under practical conditions, the drying power of safflower oil equals that of linseed oil. The non-yellowing properties of the former render it superior to the latter as a vehicle in coatings for interior decoration and in stoving enamels. In the heat polymerization of safflower oil, temperatures 10° to 15°C. higher than those normally employed for linseed oil are recommended. During three years of outdoor exposure trials, paints based on safflower oil have performed at least as well as similar paints from linseed oil. The commercial production of the oil by solvent extraction presents no difficulty. Decortication prior to extraction is not necessary. The resulting oil has a very good colour and is free from “foots.” On alkali refining, losses are very small. Notwithstanding the high hull content of the meal, it has proved valuable as a stock fodder.     

Possibilities of peanut,pecan and safflower seed oils as supplements for olive oil

Summary Samples of completely refined peanut oil, semirefined pecan oil, imported edible grade olive oil and crude safflower seed oil have been examined for composition, spectral transmittance and other properties. Compositions were determined by means of the modified Bertram oxidation method and application of the iodine-thiocyanogen number technique. None of the oils examined simulate olive oil in composition. Peanut and pecan oils appear capable of modification to produce a product chemically similar to olive oil and for certain purposes can replace olive oil without modification. The production of pecan oil under present market conditions with regard to prices for edible oils and seedling pecan nuts does not appear to be very attractive unless the costs of processing pecans for oil can be greatly reduced. Presented before the American Oil Chemists’ Society Meeting, Houston, Texas, April 30 to May 1, 1942.     

History of the development of soy oil for edible uses

In the early 1940s, soybean oil was considered neither a good industrial paint oil nor a good edible oil. The history of soybean oil is a story of progress from a minor, little-known, problem oil to a major source of edible oil proudly labeled on premium products in the 1980s. It is also a story of cooperative government research and industrial implementation of research findings. After 3-1/2 decades, soybean oil, “the number one problem of the soybean industry,” has become the source of choice for edible oil products in the U.S., moreover, increasing outlets appear to be assured in the world markets of the future.     

Catalytic isomerization of safflower oil with rhodium complexes

Cationic rhodium (I) complexes of the type [(NBD)RhL₂]⁺ ClO₄ ⁻ (NBD, norbornadiene; L, triphenyl phosphine or diphenyl phosphino ethane) have been studied as catalysts for the isomerization of methyl linoleate and safflower oil. The catalysts gave very good yields of conjugated products with both oil and methyl linoleate. Isomerization could be carried out under very mild conditions (55–65 C, 1 atm N₂). Although the catalyst undergoes transformation in the course of the reaction, it maintains its catalytic activity. In fact, the catalysts isolated from the reaction with safflower oil were recycled with practically no loss of activity.     

Safflower oil utilization in surface coatings

The unique high linoleic acid content of 78% in safflower oil makes it especially suitable to the coatings industry. The high content of linoleic acid, low amount of saturated acids, and absence of linolenic acid constitutes an oil which forms fast-drying, nonyellowing films that have an excellent through dry and low wrinkling characteristics. More safflower oil is utilized in the manufacture of alkyd resins than any other single nonedible use. The oil alcoholizes rapidly with polyols and heat-bleaches to very ligh colors in cooking the alkyd resins. These alkyds have the best combination of fast-drying and nonyellowing properties of any drying oil alkyd of equal oil content. Heat-bodies safflower oil has uniform polymer structure as shown by its viscosity reduction curves. Heat-bodied and low viscosity safflower oils are used in exterior house paints. These paints show good through dry, low wrinkling and resistance to dew flatting. Specialty uses for safflower oil include urethane resins, caulks and putties, linoleum and oil emulsion exterior house paints. Presented at the AOCS Meeting, Cincinnati, October 1965.     

Super acid catalyzed dimerization of fatty acids derived from safflower oil and dehydrated castor oil

Dimerization of fatty acids derived from dehydrated castor oil and safflower oil was carried out on the recently described sulphate-treated zirconia catalyst and trifluoromethane sulphonic acid (triflic acid) under autogeneous pressure in the temperature range of 160–240 C. Triflic acid was observed to be highly active; however, the product obtained was deeply colored. Zirconia exhibited high activity for the reaction. The important features of this catalyst were the high selectivity for dimer (low yields of trimer) and no significant coloration of the products. The zirconia catalyst shows promise for industrial use.     

The composition and properties of ragweed seed oil

Conclusions Ragweed seed contains approximately 19 per cent fat and 23 per cent protein. Large quantities of these seed can be readily obtained both from direct harvesting of the ragweed and from the cleaning of some commercial seeds. The fatty acid distribution in ragweed seed oil is as follows: palmitic acid—5.5 per cent; stearic acid—4.8 per cent; oleic acid—19.9 per cent; linoleic acid—69.8 per cent; linolenic acid—possibly traces. The composition of this oil indicates that it would have slightly better drying properties than soybean oil. The results of preliminary drying and heat-bodying experiments suggest the limited use of ragweed seed oil in paints and varnishes. No investigation has been made of the edible properties of ragweed seed oil but its relative freedom from linolenic acid indicates its use in the edible field. Ragweed seed oil contains about 1.2 per cent of a wax mixture which is made up of 55 per cent hydrocarbons, 23 per cent high molecular weight acids, and 22 per cent high molecular weight alcohols. Sterols occur in ragweed seed oil to the extent of 0.48 per cent of the weight of the oil. The unsaponifiable matter also contains high molecular weight hydrocarbons and alcohols. Pure mixed sterols were separated from the accompanying materials by the use of an adsorption process. Bromination of the acetates of the mixed sterols gave evidence for the presence of stigmasterol.     

Cottonseed oil and meal utilization

For five consecutive years world-wide production of cottonseed has set new highs, and cottonseed is more valuable as a source of food, feed, and fiber than ever before. However this paper is primarily concerned with the utilization of cottonseed oil and meal in the United States. During the three-year period, 1963–65, U.S. farmers received about $300 million annually for 6.18 million tons of cottonseed. Annual U.S. crushings were 5.79 million tons, having produced 1.94 billion pounds of crude oil valued at $222 million, 2.72 million tons of meal valued at $174 million, and 1,609,700 running bales of linters valued at $41.2 million. Retail value of cottonseed products is estimated to have been $1.1 billion annually. Changes in the U.S. cottonseed industry include shifts westward, to fewer and larger extraction plants and to the use of new and improved extraction techniques which involve solvents and high-speed expellers. The cottonseed extraction industry has a payroll of $38.2 million and consists of 188 oil mills in about 14 states, employing 8,400 people. Cottonseed oil accounted for 11.5% of total 1965 U.S. factory consumption of 12.7 billion pounds of fats and oils. Some 62% was used in salad or cooking oil, 27% in baking or frying fats, and 8% in margarine. During the 1960–65 period, usage increased in salad or cooking oils, in baking or frying fats, and in inedible products but decreased in margarine, mellorine, and other edible products. Increases exceeded decreases, and total consumption of cottonseed oil in edible and inedible products increased from 1.28 billion lb. to 1.47 billion lb. Practically all of the 2.76 million tons of cottonseed meal produced in the three-year period beginning October 1963 was used for feed. Relatively insignificant amounts were used as fertilizer on farms of cotton growers. Cattle, sheep, horse, and mule rations consumed 1.88 million tons, poultry rations 440 thousand tons, and swine rations 350 thousand tons. Cottonseed meal in cattle rations has had a downward trend since the early 1950’s although usage in poultry and swine rations has increased. It is estimated that 1.52 million tons were used by feed manufacturers in the preparation of mixed feeds during the 1964–65 season, representing a steady increase over the past two decades and a 54% increase over 1962–63. Domestic use of cottonseed flour has not changed appreciably during the past few years.     

The composition and properties of ragweed seed oil

Conclusions Ragweed seed contains approximately 19 per cent fat and 23 per cent protein. Large quantities of these seed can be readily obtained both from direct harvesting of the ragweed and from the cleaning of some commercial seeds. The fatty acid distribution in ragweed seed oil is as follows: palmitic acid—5.5 per cent; stearic acid—4.8 per cent; oleic acid—19.9 per cent; linoleic acid—69.8 per cent; linolenic acid—possibly traces. The composition of this oil indicates that it would have slightly better drying properties than soybean oil. The results of preliminary drying and heat-bodying experiments suggest the limited use of ragweed seed oil in paints and varnishes. No investigation has been made of the edible properties of ragweed seed oil but its relative freedom from linolenic acid indicates its use in the edible field. Ragweed seed oil contains about 1.2 per cent of a wax mixture which is made up of 55 per cent hydrocarbons, 23 per cent high molecular weight acids, and 22 per cent high molecular weight alcohols. Sterols occur in ragweed seed oil to the extent of 0.48 per cent of the weight of the oil. The unsaponifiable matter also contains high molecular weight hydrocarbons and alcohols. Pure mixed sterols were separated from the accompanying materials by the use of an adsorption process. Bromination of the acetates of the mixed sterols gave evidence for the presence of stigmasterol. Journal Paper No. 45 of the Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station.     

Place of rapeseed in the edible oil market

The potential for rapeseed oil in the world edible oil market is evident in the statistics of net exports of the principal vegetable oilseeds from primary producing countries. The last complete year for which figures are available is 1970, and in that year soybeans accounted for some 52% and rapeseed only 7.5% in oil equivalent. Since soybeans have only ca. 50% of the oil content of rapeseed, they are bought mainly for their yield of high protein meal. Conversely, rapeseed is bought for its oil content and produces a meal that is not only lower in protein but up to this time has been less acceptable as an ingredient in animal feed formulations. Fortunately for rapeseed, these problems are being tackled diligently and should be overcome in the near future. When this point has been reached, rapeseed will be a much stronger competitor in world markets for protein meal. The trend in the use of rapeseed oil in the Canadian domestic market is an indicator of the potential in world markets. It is displacing other edible oils that have dominated the Canadian market in the past. In the 1971 calendar year, 35.6% or 160.5 million pounds, i.e., 73,000 metric tons, of vegetable oil used in the manufacture of margarine, shortening and salad oils was rapeseed oil. Rapeseed oil is competing keenly with soybean oil in the Canadian market and in the future should be able to greatly enlarge its share of world trade. One of six papers presented in the symposium “Rapeseed Marketing and Breeding,” AOCS Meeting, Ottawa, September 1972.     

Long-term stability of blends of sesame oil or soybean oil with tuna oil under daily use conditions

The commercial feasibility of blending tuna oil into edible oil was studied from the perspective of stability under daily use conditions. A 210-day long-term simulation experiment was carried out on tuna oil blended with soybean or sesame oil at room temperature and cold storage (4°C). The bottle caps of all samples were opened manually and left open for 5 min every day to simulate the daily use of edible oil by consumers. The results indicate that cold storage can stabilize the blended oils containing tuna oil, and the peroxide and anisidine values of blended oil can be controlled at the recommended levels for at least 90 days by adding sesame oil. The polyunsaturated fatty acid content of all samples decreased by no more than 10% during the study term. The results of the sensory test indicated that in the daily use situation, the mixture of 20% tuna oil with 80% sesame oil could be stored at 4°C for up to 60 days without unacceptable quality and flavor changes. This study presents suggestions on how to design the packaging volume of the blended oil containing tuna oil, how to store the blended oil, and the term of best used before (once open) in practical commercial applications.     

A light test to measure stability of edible oils

The effect of light on the flavor of edible oils and of various fat-containing foods is reviewed to show its importance in food studies and the need for a method of evaluation. Such a test, in which fluorescent light is used in an easily assembled unit, has been developed, and the parameters for its use have been determined. Identical samples of soybean oil exposed on 10 different days and organoleptically evaluated show the method to be reproducible with a standard deviation of 0.79 with a scoring system of 1–10. This method was then applied to soybean, cottonseed, safflower and hydrogenated-winterized soybean oils, and a light-exposure value was determined for each oil based on a comparison with accelerated storage procedures ordinarily used. Advantages of this light test over current procedures are the short time required for completion, the reduction of variation by a controlled light source, reproducibility of results and its adaptability to related food products. AOCS Bond Award Honorable Mention, Fall 1963. Biometrician, ARS Biometrical Service, stationed at Northern Laboratory. A laboratory of the No. Utiliz. Res. & Dev. Div., ARS, USDA.     

Salad oil manufacture and control

Cottonseed salad oil is normally prepared by winterization, a process whereby oil is chilled slowly to form crystals of disaturated triglycerides, which are then removed by filtration. Hydrogenated soybean oil is similarly processed. Unhydrogenated soybean, corn, and safflower oils do not require winterization. A recent approach is to winterize from solvent, resulting in increased salad oil yield. The main control method is the cold test, a measure of the time required for the oil to cloud in an ice bath. Crystal inhibitors, such as oxystearin or polyglycerol esters, are used to lengthen the cold test.     

Vegetable oil raw materials

Vegetable oils that are important to the chemical industry include both edible and industrial oils, which contribute 24% and 13.5%, respectively, compared to 55% for tallow, to the preparation of surfactants, coatings, plasticizers, and other products based on fats and oils. Not only the oils themselves but also the fatty acids recovered from soapstock represent a several billion pound resource. Coconut oil is imported to the extent of 700-1,000 million pounds per year. Its uses are divided about equally between edible and industrial applications. Safflower oil has a relatively small production, but 15–25% of the oil goes into industrial products. Soybean oil, the major edible oil of the world, is produced in the United States at the rate of 11,000 million pounds per year with more than 500 million pounds going into industrial uses, representing 5% of the total production. Castor oil is imported to the extent of about 100 million pounds per year. Linseed oil production has declined drastically over the last 25 years but still amounts to about 100 million pounds per year. Oiticica and tung oils are imported in lesser amounts than castor and linseed oils. New crops that have industrial potential, as well as the traditional vegetable oil crops, include seed oils from crambe,Limnanthes, Lesquerella, Dimorphotheca, Vernonia, andCuphea plants. Crambe oil contains up to 65% erucic acid. Oil fromLimnanthes contains more than 95% of fatty acids above C₁₈.Lesquerella oil contains hydroxy unsaturated acids resembling ricinoleic acid from castor oil.Dimorphotheca oil contains a conjugated dienol system.Vernonia oils contain as much as 80% epoxy acids. TheCuphea oils contain a number of short chain fatty acids. Of these, crambe,Limnanthes, andVernonia are probably the most developed agronomically. Competition between vegetable oils and petrochemicals for the traditional fats and oil markets has been marked over the past 25 years, but prices for petrochemicals have accelerated at a greater rate than those for vegetable oils; and, it is now appropriate to reexamine the old as well as the new markets for fatty acids.     

Cost of producing linoleic acid from safflower oil

Linoleic acid of 97% purity can be made from safflower oil by liquid-liquid extraction at a “cost to make” of about 21 cents a 1b. Calculations for the cost estimate were based on pilot-plant investigations. Fixed capital investment for a plant with an annual capacity of 20 million 1b has been estimated at approximately $1,800,000. Such a plant could be converted readily to the production of a variety of other fatty acids. A laboratory of the No. Utiliz. Res. & Dev. Div. ARS, U.S.D.A.     

Food uses for cottonseed protein

Cottonseed, available in many countries located in both temperate and tropical climates, is rarely used as a source of edible protein even though its use as food was suggested as carly as 1876. Development of edible protein products from cottonseed has been impeded by the presence of gossypol-containing pigment glands in the kernels, and the economic value of the oil. Cottonseed flour produced by mechanical pressing has been marketed in limited quantities as two edible protein products. One, known as “Proflo,” is used primarily to impart functional characteristics to baked and confectionery products. The other is used as an ingredient in “Incaparina” to combat malnutrition in Latin America. Because of the manner in which these cottonseed protein products are processed, their full nutritional and functional potentials and versatiliity have not been realized. Recent advances in breeding glandless cottonseed, processing glanded cottonseed (e.g., the liquid cyclone process), and related technology have increased the potential of cottonseed protein for food uses. Flours, concentrates, and isolates differ qualitatively and quantitatively in protein and amino acid composition. Consequently, they have different functional and nutritional characteristics and end uses. Flours and concentrates as well as their texturized counterparts are acceptable as functional and nutritional additives to meat products, baked goods, and cereals. Three isolates including storage protein, nonstorage protein, and a mixture of both have been prepared from flours and concentrates. The storage protein isolate imparts functional characteristics, such as texture, acid solubility and foam stability. The non-storage protein isolate has good nutritional characteristics primarily because of its high lysine content.     

Confectionery fats from palm oil

The influence of diglycerides (DG’s) and trisaturated glycerides (P-P-P) on tempering and the hardness of confectionery products are described. Palm oil and its processed products in confectionery fats have been reported (1,2). Palm oil contains a symmetric triglyceride (P-O-P) as a main component which has polymorphic changes similar to those of cocoa butter, so a mixture of these is able to use a tempering process similar to that used for cocoa butter. Details for fat crystals and polymorphism have been reported (3,4). Okada (5) used a mixture of tristearin and tripalmitin and studied the behavior of polymorphism using X-ray diffraction. The effects of DG’s on polymorphic change in palm oil also have been reported (6,7), and Okiy (8) suggested that DG’s have an inferior effect on the quality of palm oil when used in the solidified phase. However, there have not been many papers regarding how the above influence works in the production process or how it affects confectionery products. Palm oil contains about 10% trisaturated glycerides together with a few percent of mono- and diglycerides as minor components, which have been produced during the maturation of palm fruits and processing of fats. It is very difficult to eliminate these completely during the refining process. This paper reports a study of the influence of these minor components on tempering and hardness of products by using a simulated tempering machine. We have found that DG’s lower the temperature of tempering and soften the hardness of products and that P-P-P increased the viscosity of products during tempering process but increased the hardness of products very little.     

Alkali catalyzed transesterification of safflower seed oil assisted by microwave irradiation

The safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) oil was extracted from the seeds of the safflower that grows in Diyarbakir, SE Anatolia of Turkey. Biodiesel has been prepared from safflower seed by transesterification of the crude oil under microwave irradiation, with methanol to oil molar ratio of 10:1, in the presence of 1.0% NaOH as catalyst. The conversion of C. tinctorius oil to methyl ester was over 98.4% at 6 min. The important fuel properties of safflower oil and its methyl ester (biodiesel) such as density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, iodine number, neutralization number, pour point, cloud point, cetane number are found out and compared to those of no. 2 petroleum diesel, ASTM and EN biodiesel standards. Compared with conventional heating methods, the process using microwaves irradiation proved to be a faster method for alcoholysis of triglycerides with methanol, leading to high yields of biodiesel.