Optimization of the WEDM process of particle-reinforced material with multiple performance characteristics using grey relational analysis

This paper presents an effective approach for the optimization of the wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) process of Al₂O₃ particle-reinforced material (6061 alloy) with multiple performance characteristics based on the grey relational analysis. The machining information for the difficult-cutting particle-reinforced material is inadequate and complicated. The response table and response graph for each level of the machining parameters are obtained form the grey relational grade, and select the optimal levels of machining parameters. In this study, the machining parameters namely the cutting radius of working piece, the on time of discharging, the off time of discharging, the arc on time of discharging, the arc off time of discharging, the servo voltage, the wire feed and water flow are optimized with considerations of multiple performance characteristics, such as the surface removal rate and the maximum surface roughness. It is clearly shown that the above performance characteristics in the WEDM process are great improved together through this approach.     

Effect of current density on DC electrochemical phosphating of stainless steel 316

In this study, tri-cation phosphate coating of zinc, calcium and iron was applied electrochemically to stainless steel 316 substrates. Cathodic current was used as an accelerator for the phosphating process. The effects of current density on the microstructures of the coatings and the time necessary for the reduction of the oxide layer have been established. For this purpose, analyses such as chronopotentiometery, SEM, EDS and linear polarization were carried out. Results indicated that higher electrophosphating current densities result in finer crystal size of the coating. This effect is detrimental to the quality of the layer. In addition, chemical analyses of the layer revealed that the use of current for electrophosphating of stainless steel 316 substrates imparted better corrosion resistance to the substrate as a result of zinc rich crystal deposition in the phosphate layer.     

The effects of electropolishing (EP) process parameters on corrosion resistance of 316L stainless steel

Improvement of the corrosion resistance capability of a workpiece being processed by the electropolishing (EP) is one of the most importance process characteristics. In this paper, the effects of the EP process parameters on the corrosion resistance performance of the SS 316L stainless steel were studied based on the uniform and localized intergranular corrosion (IGC) analyses. The IGC is the prominent characteristics of localized corrosion in stainless steel.

The workpiece (anode) material was the SS 316L stainless steel. The cathode material under study was platinum. The electrolyte was composed of sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, glycerin and DI water. The test specimens were all polished before experiments in order to reduce the effect of the bailby layer. Variables of the EP process parameters gap between the electrodes and the process time.

The specimens were analyzed, first, by the surface roughness measurement. Secondly, they were observed under the optical microscope for surface marks and defects. It was followed by the linear polarization analysis for the uniform corrosion performance. The electrochemical potentiokinetic repassivation (EPR) test was employed to study the localized, IGC. Finally, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) analyses were conducted to analyze the metallurgical composition and the thickness of the passive film. The results showed that the EP process greatly improved the corrosion resistance of the SS 316L stainless steel.     

The use of the orthogonal array with grey relational analysis to optimize the electrical discharge machining process with multiple performance characteristics

In this paper a new approach for the optimization of the electrical discharge machining (EDM) process with multiple performance characteristics based on the orthogonal array with the grey relational analysis has been studied. A grey relational grade obtained from the grey relational analysis is used to solve the EDM process with the multiple performance characteristics. Optimal machining parameters can then be determined by the grey relational grade as the performance index. In this study, the machining parameters, namely workpiece polarity, pulse on time, duty factor, open discharge voltage, discharge current, and dielectric fluid are optimized with considerations of multiple performance characteristics including material removal rate, surface roughness, and electrode wear ratio. Experimental results have shown that machining performance in the EDM process can be improved effectively through this approach.     

Determination of susceptibility to intergranular corrosion and electrochemical reactivation behaviour of AISI 316L type stainless steel

In this study, double loop electrochemical potentiokinetic reactivation (DLEPR) test was applied to determine the degree of sensitization in 316L type stainless steel, where obtained results were correlated with revealed microstructures after oxalic acid test and weight loss measurements of Streicher and Huey acid tests. Best agreement was provided with test parameters which are 1 M H₂SO₄ and 0.005 M KSCN at 0.833 mV/s scan rate at 30 °C. Specimens were classified structurally as absence of chromium carbides - step, no single grain completely surrounded by carbides - dual and one or more grain completely surrounded by carbides - ditch, in the as-etched structure, if the I_r:I_a (×100) ratios were obtained to be between 0 and 0.2, 0.2 and 5.0 and 5.0 and higher, respectively. It was also found that at high KSCN concentrations, reactivation current profile skewed to higher potentials where this was attributed the formation of metastable pits, during the anodic scan of the test procedure.     

Galvanic current induced by heterogeneous structures on stainless steel wire

Galvanic corrosion could be initialized between the heterogeneous structures of an implant and the resulting corrosion products could act as a trigger for thrombosis and inflammation leading to restenosis after deployment of implant inside the artery. Experimental evidence showed that there were significant differences in the electrochemical behaviors among the different grain sizes of an implant. Galvanic current was detected between different grain sizes of 316L stainless steel wires both in vitro and in vivo. Severe corrosion and thrombosis were observed at anodic sites. Results demonstrated that homogeneous structure is the essential requirement for an implant in order to minimize the development of galvanic corrosion and to prevent its aftermath after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA).     

Electropolishing of AISI-304 stainless steel for protection against SRB biofilm

Electropolishing treatment (EP) can be used to remove the biofilm formed on AISI-304 stainless steel surface and protect it against bacterial colonization. High levels of both smoothness and brightness of AISI-304 stainless steel surfaces can be attained by using electropolishing technique, where the sample was fixed as anode and a suitable current was applied into electrolytic cell containing H₃PO₄. AISI-304 stainless steel was exposed to stabilized mixed culture of sulfate reducing bacteria (SMC-SRB) under different conditions as, temperature, pH, salinity, incubation time and inoculum size. The present study recorded the main indicators of bacterial activity such as S⁻⁻, Fe⁺⁺, most probable number (MPN) of SRB and weight loss (corrosion rate) by milinches per year (mpy). The results revealed that the bacterial counts were obviously decreased under all conditions of bacterial biofilm formation after electropolishing treatment.     

不锈钢管焊接残余应力与变形仿真分析

基于计算机仿真技术,定义随温度变化的材料热物理属性,建立316不锈钢连续油管对接焊接轴对称模型,分析焊接速度对焊后油管接头的残余应力和变形的影响。结果表明,在连续管道焊接过程中,焊接速度影响焊接温度场和焊后残余应力的分布;油管内壁最大残余压应力出现在距离焊缝中心22 mm接近母材的位置处,且轴向应力和环向应力的变化同步,油管外壁环向应力和轴向应力变化不同步;随焊接速度的增加,油管外壁残余应力逐渐增大,内壁残余应力和焊接变形逐渐减小,焊接变形可释放部分焊接残余应力,在一定程度上可降低焊后残余应力。     

Corrosion behaviour of 316L stainless steel manufactured by selective laser melting

This work investigates the electrochemical behaviour of an AISI 316L stainless steel produced by selective laser melting (SLM) and compares its behaviour with that of wrought stainless steel with similar chemical composition. The SLM stainless steel specimens are tested in the as‐produced condition without stress relief or recrystallization heat treatments. The electrochemical tests are carried out in two electrolytes: 3.5 wt% NaCl solution with neutral pH and with pH of 1.8. At the macroscale, the microstructure of the SLM specimens is determined by the laser scanning pattern and displays an overlapping network of melt pools. At the microscale, the SLM specimens exhibit a cellular/columnar dendritic structure with submicrometric cell size. Electrochemical measurements highlight a more extended passive range for SLM stainless steel in both neutral and acid electrolytes indicating higher protective properties of the oxide film on SLM specimens. In contrast to the wrought material, the refined microstructure of the SLM specimens promotes a very shallow morphology of attack without deep penetration in the bulk.     

316不锈钢激光焊接工艺研究

采用脉冲光纤激光器对0.2mm厚的316不锈钢进行搭接焊接,研究了峰值功率及脉冲宽度对焊点拉力及背面痕迹的影响。结果表明,随着峰值功率和脉宽的增加,焊点抗拉强度增加,同时焊点背面痕迹越来越明显。当峰值功率为200W,脉冲宽度为2.5ms时,焊点拉力为11.3N,且焊点背面无痕迹。对焊点进行切片分析,焊点熔深在0.3mm时,满足焊点背面无痕迹且抗拉强度大的要求。     

Electropolishing of 316L stainless steel for anticorrosion passivation

316L stainless steel is deemed an indispensable material in the semiconductor industry. In many instances, the surface of the production equipment needs to be treated for low-corrosion passivation, good finish, weldability, and cleanliness. The process characteristics of electropolishing meet these requirements well. The current study investigates the effects of the major processing parameters on the anticorrosion performance and the surface roughness. The electrolyte with 10% water content and a ratio between H₂SO₄ and H₃PO₄ of 4 and 6 has been proven to be successful, showing no corrosion pitting points on the specimen surface. The electrolyte temperature of 85±10 °C and the electrical current density of 0.5 to 1.0 A/cm² are found to be optimal. The processing time beyond 3 to 5 min produces no further improvement. The addition of 10% glycerin provides a very fine surface (maximum roughness of 0.05 μm), while the anticorrosion performance is deteriorated. The results obtained are useful for the manufacture of the semiconductor equipment.     

Oxidation of stainless steel in the high velocity oxy-fuel process

The high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) spray process has been primarily used for the application of wear-resistant coatings and, with the introduction of new, more powerful systems, is being increasingly considered for producing corrosion-resistant coatings. In this study, the influence of various spray parameters for the JP-5000 and Diamond Jet (DJ) Hybrid systems on the oxidation of stainless steel 316L is characterized. Experimental results reveal that coating oxygen contents of less than 1 wt.% can be more easily attained with the JP-5000 than the DJ Hybrid systems because of the former’s design. In both cases, however, the low particle temperatures necessary for low oxygen content coatings may impair bond and cohesive strength. Heat treating the coatings after processing reduces hardness, metallurgically enhances bond strength, and enables the spheroidization of oxide layers surrounding unmelted particles. An empirical model describing oxidation in the thermal spray process was expanded to explain the oxidation in the HVOF spraying of stainless steel. It was concluded that for these oxygen-sensitive materials, maintaining a relatively low particle temperature throughout the spray process minimizes oxygen pickup by preventing an autocatalytic oxidation process and particle fragmentation upon impact. For the DJ Hybrid systems, understoichiometric fuel settings are selected, whereas for the JP-5000, oxygen-rich mixtures are preferred.     

A study on stainless steel mirror surface polishing by using the electrophoretic deposition method

Polishing wheels with homogeneously organized micro abrasive grains, uniformly dispersed by electrophoretic deposition (EPD), can be applied in mirror-like polishing process. This work studies the characteristics of EPD and mechanical polishing when SUS316LVV is polished. Abrasive grains with blunt edges are easily ablated from the polishing wheel by friction during polishing. The polishing wheel can be continuously refreshed by adding new abrasives. A superior surface polishing quality can thus be obtained. The control parameters of the EPD polishing process include the working voltage, the rate of rotation of the polishing wheel, the polishing feed rate, the polishing time, the axial loading and the pH value of the electrolyte, etc. Experimental results indicate not only that SiC particles of size 0.9–1.5 μm were used in EPD polishing, but also that the initial roughness of a machined surface could be improved from 0.5 μm Ra to 0.02 μm in 8 min, yielding a mirror-like surface.     

不锈钢气管泄漏分析

通过宏观检验、化学成分分析、金相检验、扫描电镜以及能谱分析等方法,对TP316不锈钢气管腐蚀开裂泄漏原因进行分析。结果表明,该气管的化学元素组成符合相应的材料标准,通过能谱分析显示腐蚀泄漏区域具有硫和氯元素沉积,显微组织中含有形变马氏体,固溶处理不充分,另外该气管在冷拔后没有进行去应力退火,在管内通入的气体中含有硫、氯等杂质元素情况下,导致气管的内表面产生应力腐蚀裂纹,裂纹不断扩展,最终致使气管泄漏。因此,应力腐蚀是导致气管产生泄漏的主要原因。     

Stress corrosion cracking for 316 stainless steel clips in a condensate stabilizer

In one of the gas processing facilities in Abu Dhabi, UAE; a case of 316L stainless steel material failure occurred in the fractionating column due to stress cracking corrosion twice in a cycle of less than 2 years. This paper studies the stress corrosion cracking behavior of the 316L stainless steel in an accelerated corrosion environment and compares it with a higher corrosion resistant nickel alloy (Inconel 625). The experimental work was designed according to ASTM G36 standard, the samples were immersed in a boiling magnesium chloride medium which provided the accelerated corrosion environment and the tested samples were shaped into U‐bend specimens as they underwent both plastic and elastic stresses. The specimens were then tested to determine the time required for cracks to initiate. The results of the experimental work showed that the main mode of failure was stress corrosion cracking initiated by the proven presence of chlorides, hydrogen sulfide, and water at elevated temperatures. Inconel 625 samples placed in the controlled environment showed better corrosion resistance as it took them an average of 56 days to initiate cracks, whereas it took an average of 24 days to initiate cracks in the stainless steel 316L samples. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs showed that the cracks in the stainless steel 316L samples were longer, wider, and deeper compared to the cracks of Inconel 625.     

电弧喷涂316L不锈钢涂层的结构与性能

采用电弧喷涂优化工艺制备316L不锈钢涂层,利用扫描电镜、能谱仪和X射线衍射仪等对涂层的组织及物相进行分析,同时对涂层的硬度、结合强度进行了测定。结果表明：涂层具有典型的层状形貌,涂层截面较为致密,局部区域出现粗大孔洞;涂层与基体之间主要为机械结合,结合强度较高;涂层硬度的最大值出现在涂层中部,靠近界面的基体组织发生加工硬化。     

表面机械研磨处理对316L不锈钢组织和性能的影响

对2.8mm厚的316L不锈钢板的上下表层进行机械研磨处理(SMAT),对经过不同时间的SMAT后的样品的表层组织进行金相观察,并测量SMAT不同时间的样品的硬度、抗拉强度.结果表明,经过表面机械研磨处理不同时间后,在316L不锈钢板表层获得了不同厚度的表面强化层,强化层组织为沿厚度方向由纳米晶层向微米晶层过渡的梯度组织;随着SMAT时间的增加,总的强化层厚度增加;表面组织的变化导致了表面硬度明显增加,整体材料的屈服强度增加;表面机械研磨处理时间对性能的影响并非线性增加,表面硬度和整体材料的屈服强度在处理5min时增加显著,处理时间继续增加到15、30和60min,它们的增加速度很小.拉伸断口表面形貌的扫描电镜观察表明,经过5min处理后的样品,表层的剪切唇变形区域面积增加,断口微观特征为长条状的韧窝,但是随着处理时间的增加,剪切唇区的尺寸并没有继续增加,而是开始下降,表面硬化区域的增加造成了塑性变形能力的下降.     

低碳钢表面激光熔覆不锈钢的组织和性能

采用JHM-1GY-400型脉冲Nb∶YAG固体激光器和316L不锈钢粉末在20低碳钢表面制备了激光熔覆层。利用OM、XRD、SEM等表征方法分析了不锈钢熔覆层的物相组成和显微组织,并分别利用旋转摩擦试验机和电化学工作站对熔覆层和基材的耐磨损和耐腐蚀性进行了研究。试验结果表明,不锈钢熔覆层厚度约为50 μm,由γ相(奥氏体)和α相(铁素体)组成,其显微组织主要包括细小的树枝晶、粗大的胞状晶以及平面晶;不锈钢熔覆层表面硬度约为基材的2倍,摩擦因数比基材低0.0418,磨损量更低,不锈钢熔覆层比基材具有更高的耐磨性。与基材相比,不锈钢熔覆层具有更低的自腐蚀电流和更高的自腐蚀电位,其耐腐蚀性能更优异。     

316LN不锈钢焊后热处理工艺及对残余应力的影响

在核聚变实验装置中广泛使用的316LN不锈钢材料,在焊接后出现较大的残余应力,使用焊后热处理法减少焊接残余应力。使用软件模拟计算出316LN不锈钢TTT、CCT和相组成图,获得了合理的焊后热处理工艺。结果表明,焊件平均残余应力减少幅度最大的发生在焊缝区,最小的发生在母材区。焊件沿着焊接方向,残余应力逐渐减少。