Avatars Versus Agents: A Meta-Analysis Quantifying the Effect of Agency on Social Influence

Existing research has investigated whether virtual representations perceived to be controlled by humans (i.e., avatars) or those perceived to be controlled by computer algorithms (i.e., agents) are more influential. A meta-analysis (N = 32) examined the model of social influence in virtual environments (Blascovich, 2002) and investigated whether agents and avatars in virtual environments elicit different levels of social influence. Results indicated that perceived avatars produced stronger responses than perceived agents. Level of immersion (desktop vs. fully immersive), dependent variable type (subjective vs. objective), task type (competitive vs. cooperative vs. neutral), and actual control of the representation (human vs. computer) were examined as moderators. An interaction effect revealed that studies conducted on a desktop that used objective measures showed a stronger effect for agency than those that were conducted on a desktop but used subjective measures. Competitive and cooperative tasks showed greater agency effects than neutral tasks. Studies in which both conditions were actually human controlled showed greater agency effects than studies in which both conditions were actually computer controlled. We discuss theoretical and design implications for human–computer interaction and computer-mediated communication.     

The sensitive interface

One of the most important problems in human-computer interaction is that of maximising communication between the user and the computer. We claim that optimum communication will be facilitated when the computer can analyse and respond to the intentions of the computer user. We propose a philosophy for computer interface design in which the computer analyses the intentions of users through verbal and nonverbal media. With respect to verbal media we describe a computer program called Operating System CONsultant (OSCON) which can analyse users' intentions from English in the domain of computer operating systems. With respect to nonverbal media we argue that computers will be better able to analyse people's intentions when recognising the media of facial expression, touch, and sound. Some results and implications from a recent experiment on cross-cultural emotions in faces are discussed. We describe the IDIOMS (Intelligent Decision-making In On-line Management Systems) project which implements a design philosophy for capturing users' concepts and intentions. We argue that this approach will ensure the computers will become more understanding of their users and this will result in a more sensitive human-computer interface.     

Augmented reality agents for user interface adaptation

Most augmented reality (AR) applications are primarily concerned with letting a user browse a 3D virtual world registered with the real world. More advanced AR interfaces let the user interact with the mixed environment, but the virtual part is typically rather finite and deterministic. In contrast, autonomous behavior is often desirable in ubiquitous computing (Ubicomp), which requires the computers embedded into the environment to adapt to context and situation without explicit user intervention. We present an AR framework that is enhanced by typical Ubicomp features by dynamically and proactively exploiting previously unknown applications and hardware devices, and adapting the appearance of the user interface to persistently stored and accumulated user preferences. Our framework explores proactive computing, multi‐user interface adaptation, and user interface migration. We employ mobile and autonomous agents embodied by real and virtual objects as an interface and interaction metaphor, where agent bodies are able to opportunistically migrate between multiple AR applications and computing platforms to best match the needs of the current application context. We present two pilot applications to illustrate design concepts. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Facets of simplicity for the smartphone interface: A structural model

Motivated by the need to develop an integrated measure of simplicity perception for a smartphone user interface, our research incorporated visual aesthetics, information design, and task complexity into an extended construct of simplicity. Drawn from three distinct domains of human–computer interaction design and related areas, the new development of a simplicity construct and measurement scales were then validated. The final measurement model consisted of six components: reduction, organization, component complexity, coordinative complexity, dynamic complexity, and visual aesthetics. The following phase aimed at verifying the relationship between simplicity perception of the interface and evaluations of user satisfaction. The hypothesis was accepted that user satisfaction was positively affected by simplicity perception and that the relationship between the two constructs was very strong. The findings imply that a simplified interface design of the task performance, information hierarchy, and visual display attributes contributes to positive satisfaction evaluations when users interact with their smartphone as they engage in communication, information search, and entertainment activities.     

Conversation with and through computers

People design what they say specifically for their conversational partners, and they adapt to their partners over the course of a conversation. A comparison of keyboard conversations involving a simulated computer partner (as in a natural language interface) with those involving a human partner (as in teleconferencing) yielded striking differences and some equally striking similarities. For instance, there were significantly fewer acknowledgments in human/computer dialogue than in human/human. However, regardless of the conversational partner, people expected connectedness across conversational turns. In addition, the style of a partner's response shaped what people subsequently typed. These results suggest some issues that need to be addressed before a natural language computer interface will be able to hold up its end of a conversation.     

State-of-the-art virtual reality hardware for computer-aided design

Virtual reality is an exciting new field, which may offer significant improvements in the efficiency of human-computer interface for a wide variety of computer applications. This paper serves to identify technology developments in virtual reality hardware devices that may allow for development of a more efficient user interface for computer-aided design packages for mechanical design functions. Presented is a survey of the current state of the art in the rapidly changing field of virtual reality hardware devices. The devices are broken down into classes that are related to user interface features that may improve the efficiency of computer-aided design functions. Classes of virtual reality hardware devices are identified needing future research and development to implement the most effective virtual reality computer-aided design interface.     

一种新的用户界面设计模型

用户界面是人和计算机之间的通信媒介,友好的用户界面能提高用户使用的效率.为了增强用户界面的有效性、正确性、友好性,提高人机交互的效率,在研究已有用户界面设计模型、用户参与设计方式和领域建模的基础上,提出一种以最终用户、领域专家、开发人员为设计中心的新的用户界面设计模型.     

基于DSP的嵌入式USB从机接口设计

通用串行总线（usB）作为过去几年里计算机和嵌入式领域的热点,推动了计算机外设的飞速发展。介绍Pc机与数字信号处理器（DSP）通过USB接口实现高速通信的一种设计方案。给出了硬件和软件接口电路的设计实现,系统中选用Cypress公司的CY7C68001EZ—USBSX2,为DsP（TMs320Vc5416）构筑与PC机之间的高速双向传榆通路,开发小规模主从式系统。该应用系统可以满足高速信号处理的要求,并具有速度快和可靠性高等优点。     

A data mining technique for discovering distinct patterns of hand signs: implications in user training and computer interface design

Hand signs are considered as one of the important ways to enter information into computers for certain tasks. Computers receive sensor data of hand signs for recognition. When using hand signs as computer inputs, we need to (1) train computer users in the sign language so that their hand signs can be easily recognized by computers, and (2) design the computer interface to avoid the use of confusing signs for improving user input performance and user satisfaction. For user training and computer interface design, it is important to have a knowledge of which signs can be easily recognized by computers and which signs are not distinguishable by computers. This paper presents a data mining technique to discover distinct patterns of hand signs from sensor data. Based on these patterns, we derive a group of indistinguishable signs by computers. Such information can in turn assist in user training and computer interface design.     

A data mining technique for discovering distinct patterns of hand signs: implications in user training and computer interface design

Hand signs are considered as one of the important ways to enter information into computers for certain tasks. Computers receive sensor data of hand signs for recognition. When using hand signs as computer inputs, we need to (1) train computer users in the sign language so that their hand signs can be easily recognized by computers, and (2) design the computer interface to avoid the use of confusing signs for improving user input performance and user satisfaction. For user training and computer interface design, it is important to have a knowledge of which signs can be easily recognized by computers and which signs are not distinguishable by computers. This paper presents a data mining technique to discover distinct patterns of hand signs from sensor data. Based on these patterns, we derive a group of indistinguishable signs by computers. Such information can in turn assist in user training and computer interface design.     

Toward an Objective Linguistic-Based Measure of Perceived Embodied Conversational Agent Power and Likeability

Embodied conversational agents (ECA) are a type of intelligent, multimodal computer interface that allow computers to interact with humans in a face-to-face manner. It is quite feasible that ECAs will someday replace the common keyboard as a human–computer interface. However, we have much to understand about how people interact with such embodied virtual agents. In this study, we performed a laboratory experiment, in an airport screening context, to assess how people’s linguistic behavior changes with their perceptions of the ECA’s power and likeability. The results show that people tend to manifest more verbal immediacy and expressivity, as well as offer more information about themselves, with ECAs they perceive as more likeable and less powerful.     

Using task analysis to improve usability of fatigue modelling software

The design of any interactive computer system requires consideration of both humans and machines. Software usability is one aspect of human–computer interaction that can benefit from knowledge of the user and their tasks. One set of methods for determining whether an application enables users to achieve their predetermined goals effectively and efficiently is task analysis. In the present study, a task analysis was applied to the graphical user interface of fatigue modelling software used in industry. The task analysis procedure allowed areas of usability improvement to be identified and then addressed with alternate interface prototypes. The present method of task analysis illustrates a practical and efficient way for software designers to improve software usability, user effectiveness and satisfaction, by involving users in the design process.     

Beyond WIMP

The WIMP (windows, icons, menus, point-and-click devices) graphical user interface (GUI) is not an ideal interface. Expert users find pure WIMP GUIs frustratingly slow and thus use keyboard shortcuts. In addition, they don't scale well-GUI bloat accompanies feature bloat. The most serious limitation, however, is that WIMP GUIs were designed for keyboard-plus-mouse desktop computing environments-environments that takes advantage only of vision and primitive touch. Our goal should be to design user interfaces that match our human perceptual, cognitive, manipulative and social abilities. We want to interact as naturally with computers and intelligent devices as we communicate and collaborate with each other and as we manipulate our physical environments. Indeed, computers are increasingly being used to facilitate human communication, collaboration and social interaction. Therefore, we should increasingly focus on human-human interaction, not just human-computer interaction. This change in focus reflects not only changes in the mode of computer use but also the increasingly invisible nature of the computer in our environments. New environments must serve as forcing functions to give us far higher expectations for user interfaces than we have had previously. Furthermore, the potential of future interfaces for handicapped people is phenomenal. Thus, despite the technology challenges, the greatest challenge lies in our understanding of human capabilities and how to incorporate that understanding into new design tools, methodologies and user interfaces     

Application of Expectancy Violations Theory to communication with and judgments about embodied agents during a decision-making task

Because users treat embodied agents (EAs) as social actors, users hold expectations about human-to-EA communication (HtEAC) similar to those in human-to-human communication. This study extends Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT) to examine how different forms of interfaces that confirm or violate user expectations affect the communication process, social judgments, ability to influence, and accuracy of recall associated with HtEAC. Positive violations of expectancy are acts or characteristics of the EA that are unexpected but evaluated favorably by the human partner. Results suggest that when the EA deviates from expectations, effects on the HtEAC process and related outcomes can be more pronounced. EAs evaluated as positive violations had more favorable effects on task attractiveness than other human or EA interaction partners. As predicted by EVT, EA interactions that were positively evaluated elicited more perceived connectedness, feelings of being understood/receptivity, and dependability than those EA interactions evaluated negatively. However, negative violations did not produce worse outcomes than negative confirmations. EVT offers a useful lens for examining the communication effects of HtEAC and points to benefits of creating EAs that evoke positive violations of expectancy.     

Computer interface design: A user-centered approach

Enhancing the way people use computers to perform tasks has become a very important issue in interface design and human-computer interactions. When the concept of human-computer interaction first began to emerge it was commonly understood as the hardware and software through which a human and computer could effectively communicate (Laurel, 1990). This effective communication is also know as user-friendliness. The concept of user friendliness has recently been expanded to include various attributes and cognitive aspects of the user's needs and experiences. Focus should be on the user's experiences, expectations, preferences, and cognitive aspects in developing efficient and effective computer interface designs. It is the basic premise of this paper to emphasize using a user-centered design in developing computer interfaces.     

Attractive Agents Are More Persuasive

Advances in more ubiquitous human–computer interface technologies have resulted in the increased use of virtual agents, thus highlighting the need to understand the impact these artificial entities have on the human user in terms of how the user both perceives and behaves toward these characters. We report the results of an experiment based on the Desert Survival task, where the effect of agent attractiveness on persuasion was tested. The results suggest that the attractive agent was significantly more persuasive in changing the participant's opinion than was the unattractive agent. Furthermore, greater behavioral change was observed when the participant interacted with the attractive agent, in terms of persuasiveness, including the attribution of more positive personality traits toward this agent (the attractiveness stereotype). These findings provide further evidence of the powerful influence of the agent's physical appearance on the human user in an interaction-based context. We conclude by pointing toward future research and potential within the area.     

Problem-centered design in concurrent engineering

This paper introduces the concept of incorporating the human and computerised elements of a design team into a single co-operating system, moving away from the model of a computer system supporting a single user towards being part of a heterarchy of agents. This augments classic CSCW where the computer is a facilitator to that where the computerised elements are active participants.

Within that collection of agents the humans are not only using the computers to solve their own problems but are deployed to satisfy the computers requirements; the whole system being designed to satisfy the customers' requirements. In a design and production environment the primary user is the problem which interfaces to the agents who combine to deliver a solution.

Relevance to industry

Rather than take a computer- or user-centred viewpoint, we argue for a holist cybernetic approach integrating both with the focus on the problem rather than any particular component. Where systems are largely user-driven, such as word processing, then the problem will naturally lean towards a user-centred design. In contrast the solution of large sets of differential equations requires little user involvement and so the focus leans naturally towards the computational aspects. Most systems lie between these extremes. Concurrent engineering is concerned with integrating many aspects of design and manufacture and so requires such a holistic approach to succeed.     

Resource allocation in grid computing

Grid computing, in which a network of computers is integrated to create a very fast virtual computer, is becoming ever more prevalent. Examples include the TeraGrid and Planet-lab.org, as well as applications on the existing Internet that take advantage of unused computing and storage capacity of idle desktop machines, such as Kazaa, SETI@home, Climateprediction.net, and Einstein@home. Grid computing permits a network of computers to act as a very fast virtual computer. With many alternative computers available, each with varying extra capacity, and each of which may connect or disconnect from the grid at any time, it may make sense to send the same task to more than one computer. The application can then use the output of whichever computer finishes the task first. Thus, the important issue of the dynamic assignment of tasks to individual computers is complicated in grid computing by the option of assigning multiple copies of the same task to different computers. We show that under fairly mild and often reasonable conditions, maximizing task replication stochastically maximizes the number of task completions by any time. That is, it is better to do the same task on as many computers as possible, rather than assigning different tasks to individual computers. We show maximal task replication is optimal when tasks have identical size and processing times have a NWU (New Worse than Used; defined later) distribution. Computers may be heterogeneous and their speeds may vary randomly, as is the case in grid computing environments. We also show that maximal task replication, along with a c μ rule, stochastically maximizes the successful task completion process when task processing times are exponential and depend on both the task and computer, and tasks have different probabilities of completing successfully.     

Integration Model of Eye-Gaze, Voice and Manual Response in Multimodal User Interface

This paper reports the utility of eye-gaze,voice and manual response in the design of multimodal user interface.A device-and application-independent user interface model(VisualMan)of 3D object selection and manipulation was developed and validated in a prototype interface based on a 3D cube manipulation task.The multimodal inpus are integrated in the prototype interface based on the priority of modalities and interaction context.The implications of the model for virtual reality interface are discussed and a virtual environment using the multimodal user interface model is proposed.