Evaluation of Pavement Friction Performance on Interchange Ramps at Network Level

Most state highway agencies conduct inventory friction testing on mainline highways to monitor network pavement friction performance. However, no state highway agencies have been reported to monitor pavement friction performance on interchange ramps. Interchange ramps constitute a large portion of the interstate highway facilities. Great concerns have arisen nationwide due to the increasing number of accidents in the ramp areas. This paper presents an effort to evaluate pavement friction performance on interchange ramps in Indiana. It is found that the overall average posted speed is 38?mi/h on interchange ramps, which is close to the test speed of 64?km/h recommended by AASHTO for establishing pavement friction requirements. In addition, pavement friction seemed to decrease as ramp curvature decreased. In general, three tests at the entrance, midpoint, and exit can provide information sufficient to evaluate pavement friction performance on an entire ramp. The 15th percentile friction number for overall interstate mainline pavements is 30 and 29 for the selected ramps.     

Forensic Investigation of Ultrathin Whitetopping Pavements in Florida

Developed in the early 1990s, ultrathin whitetopping (UTW) is a relatively new technique for asphalt pavement rehabilitation. To evaluate the applicability of UTW pavement in Florida, in 1997, the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) constructed an experimental UTW pavement in a weigh station along I-10, located in north Florida. The performance of these test sections, however, was less than ideal, with the observation of some early cracking on the concrete surface, which developed into severe cracking with time. Therefore, a forensic investigation was conducted to determine the causes of the problems in these UTW sections, so that lessons could be learned from this experimental project, the use of UTW under Florida’s conditions could be adequately assessed, and UTW technology could be properly applied in the future. The scope of work consisted of field evaluation, laboratory testing, and pavement design evaluation. Field evaluation included a pavement condition survey, pavement temperature measurement, nondestructive load testing using a falling weight deflectometer, and slab thickness determination. Laboratory tests were performed to determine concrete and asphalt material properties. Other design and traffic data were also acquired from FDOT. Data collected from the field evaluation and laboratory testing were used in conjunction with a mechanistic UTW pavement design/evaluation procedure to determine the possible causes for premature failure. From this comprehensive evaluation, the primary cause for the failure was found to be inadequate UTW pavement design. The inadequacy of the combination of thickness and slab dimensions contributed to the early cracking of the UTW pavement.     

Investigation of a Pavement Premature Failure on a Weak and Moisture Susceptible Base

An investigation was conducted to determine the root cause of the premature pavement failure. The premature pavement failure occurred in the form of rutting and alligator cracking. Although the affected portion was repaired by removing and replacing the top 75-mm asphalt concrete (AC), the repaired AC experienced recurring rutting and alligator cracking in a few weeks. Through extensive field and lab testing, it was found that the weak base is the root cause of the premature failure and the brittleness of the AC is secondary. However, both the base and AC were built according to plan and met the current material and field density requirements. It was concluded that density alone for construction quality control is not sufficient, as it was not able to protect against premature failures from occurring. Although there are many different ways to minimize premature failures, an immediate action is to include proof rolling in construction quality control. Proof rolling has been used with success to ensure proper compaction and to locate unstable areas, as the stability is greatly influenced by the degree of densification achieved during compaction.     

Computer Simulation Model: Construction Analysis for Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies

Most state highways in the United States were built during the 1960s and 1970s with an infrastructure investment of more than $1 trillion. They now exceed their 20?year design lives and are seriously deteriorated. The consequences are high maintenance and road user costs because of degraded road surfaces and construction work zone delays. Efficient planning of highway rehabilitation closures is critical. This paper presents a simulation model, Construction Analysis for Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies (CA4PRS), which estimates the maximum amount of highway rehabilitation/reconstruction during various closure timeframes. The model balances project constraints such as scheduling interfaces, pavement materials and design, contractor logistics and resources, and traffic operations. It has been successfully used on several urban freeway rehabilitation projects with high traffic volume, including projects on I-10 and I-710. The CA4PRS helps agencies and contractors plan highway rehabilitation strategies by taking into account long-life pavement performance, construction productivity, traffic delay, and total cost.     

Evaluation of Full-Depth Asphalt Pavement Construction Using X-Ray Computed Tomography and Ground Penetrating Radar

In the past few years, a number of full-depth or perpetual pavements have been designed and constructed in the State of Texas. A study was conducted to examine the quality of the compaction of the thick asphalt layers within these pavements using advanced forensic tools such as X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) and ground penetrating radar (GPR). The GPR is a nondestructive tool for evaluating the uniformity of density in pavements at highway speed. X-ray CT is a laboratory tool that is used to conduct detailed analysis of air void distribution and uniformity in asphalt pavement cores. This paper presents the results of analyzing one of the perpetual pavements constructed in State Highway 114 (SH-114). In this project, two different structural asphalt pavement sections were placed, one included a 1?in. (25.4 mm) stone filled (SF) Superpave mix and the other included a traditional dense graded Type B material. The dense graded Type B material was found to be uniformly compacted. However, major compaction problems were identified with the coarse SF Superpave mix. The poor compaction and associated high percent air vsoids were found to permit moisture infiltration, which could potentially lead to rapid pavement deterioration. The analysis showed very good agreement between the GPR and X-ray CT results and demonstrated the efficiency of using GPR and X-ray CT in the evaluation of asphalt pavement compaction.     

Snow Event Effects on Interstate Highway Crashes

This study compares snow event and equivalent nonsnow interstate vehicular crash rates and investigates weather-related elements that may contribute to crash occurrence during snow events. Vehicular crashes reported in the state of Iowa are examined on seven different sections of the interstate highway system during the 1995∕1996, 1996∕1997, and part of the 1997∕1998 winter seasons. A geographic information system was utilized to combine crash records with weather and traffic count data to obtain the data set analyzed in this study. A significant increase was observed when winter snow event crash rates on the seven interstate highway sections were compared to crash rates on those same sections during equivalent nonsnow conditions. Crash, weather, and traffic data were further analyzed to identify snow event elements that play important roles in crash occurrence on interstate highways. The results of a Poisson model for crash frequency indicated that snow event duration, snowfall intensity, and average wind speed during snow events are important contributory elements. Additionally, traffic volume during snow events was also found to be a significant factor in crash occurrence.     

NJTxtr—A Computer Program Based on LASER to Monitor Asphalt Segregation

Abstract: This paper describes the research funded by the New Jersey Department of Transportation to develop an automated technology to monitor segregation during construction of hot-mix asphalt concrete pavements. A Laser-based system was used to measure surface texture and to detect segregation. Two segregated test sections and a control test section were tested to evaluate the applicability of Laser texture method to detect and quantify segregation. Laser texture data were gathered from all three sections. Ratios of texture in segregated areas to that in nonsegregated areas were set as the basis for detection of different levels of segregation. By combining the level of segregation and extent of segregation, an AREA index was developed to determine the acceptability of a pavement section. Based on AREA index, pay adjustment factors were proposed to reduce the payment to account for loss of pavement life due to segregation. Further remedial actions were proposed to correct segregated pavement sections with acceptable AREA index. Based on the above concepts, Windows-based computer program NJTxtr was developed to detect and quantify segregation. This computer program uses the Laser-equipment-collected pavement texture data and determines whether the pavement section is acceptable or unacceptable based on the level of segregation within a pavement section, and provides bonus or penalties to the contractor. The paper describes a novel technology using laser and associated software for construction quality control of asphalt concrete pavements. The proposed methodology was applied to detect segregation in an interstate highway section in New Jersey, and this section was repaved based on visual observation and recommendation from this study.     

Developing a Traffic Closure Integrated Linear Schedule for Highway Rehabilitation Projects

In recent years, the state departments of transportation have implemented a number of highway rehabilitation projects across the country. These projects differ fundamentally from new highway projects in that they require an uninterrupted flow of traffic throughout both the duration and geometric length of the project. Synchronization of traffic closure with the construction activities is crucial in such projects to avoid the traffic conflicts and prevent idle time for equipment and labor. Although most highway rehabilitation projects involve predominantly linear activities, the techniques of linear scheduling are not readily applicable to highway rehabilitation projects due to the conflict between the workzone and traffic flow. This paper documents the development of a traffic closure integrated linear schedule (TCILS) that addresses both traffic closure and work progress issues. The TCILS generates a single schedule for both the construction activities and the associated traffic closures. Visual and graphical features are also applied in the system, which makes it particularly applicable for highway rehabilitation projects. An actual concrete pavement rehabilitation project using the TCILS is presented as a sample of application. The findings from the sample project, although they are limited, show that the TCILS can be applied to an actual project. With recommended future development, the system is believed to be beneficial for both construction practitioners and academics.     

Analytical and Experimental Investigation of Bridge Girder Shear Distribution Factors

Tests on twelve bridges (six along Interstate 55 and six along Interstate 70/270 in Illinois) were performed to determine the validity of certain provisions for calculating bearing forces in the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) and the load factor design bridge specifications. The bridges were selected to be typical of Illinois interstate highway bridges and maintain a range of parameters to study. These bridges were instrumented on their beam webs with three strain gauge rosettes installed on each beam to measure shear stresses caused by loads. Static tests and slow moving 8 km/h (5?mi/h) tests with a loaded truck in specified locations were performed. Dynamic tests at highway speeds were also completed. Finite-element models were developed and compared to the test results. The study shows that the LRFD specification procedures closely approximate the shear distribution factors determined by finite-element analysis and testing.     

Detection of Common Defects in Concrete Bridge Decks Using Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques

The transportation infrastructure in the United States is deteriorating and will require significant improvements. Consequently, innovations in the area of transportation infrastructure maintenance and rehabilitation are keys to the health and wellness of this valuable national asset. A major component of maintenance and rehabilitation is the ability to accurately assess the condition of the transportation infrastructure. This can be accomplished in part by using nondestructive evaluation techniques. Several nondestructive techniques have been used on concrete bridge decks and have proven to be efficient and effective. This paper aims at studying the different nondestructive evaluation techniques used in the assessment of concrete bridge deck conditions. An experimental investigation to evaluate the ability of infrared thermography, impact echo, and ground penetrating radar to detect common flaws in concrete bridge decks is developed and discussed. Results from this study showed the ability of these methods to detect defects with varying precision. Capabilities of the methods were verified and comparisons among the methods were made.     

Global Optimization of Pavement Structural Parameters during Back-Calculation Using Hybrid Shuffled Complex Evolution Algorithm

In this paper, the use of a hybrid evolutionary optimization algorithm is proposed for global optimization of pavement structural parameters through inverse modeling. Shuffled complex evolution (SCE) is a population-based stochastic optimization technique combining the competitive complex evolution with the controlled random search, the implicit clustering, and the complex shuffling. Back-calculation of pavement layer moduli is an ill-posed inverse engineering problem, which involves searching for the optimal combination of pavement layer stiffness solutions in an unsmooth, multimodal, complex search space. SCE is especially considered a robust and efficient approach for global optimization of multimodal functions. A desirable characteristic of the SCE algorithm is that it uses information about the nature of the response surface, extracted using the deterministic Simplex geometric shape, to direct the search into regions with higher posterior probability. The hybrid back-calculation system described in this paper combines the robustness of the SCE in global optimization with the computational efficiency of neural networks and advanced pavement system characterization offered by employing finite-element models. This is the first time the SCE approach is applied to real-time nondestructive evaluation of pavement systems required in the routine maintenance and rehabilitation activities for sustainable transportation infrastructure.     

Detailed Forensic Investigation and Rehabilitation Recommendation on Interstate Highway-30

The main objective of this study is to identify the cause of the punchouts observed on Interstate Highway 30 (IH-30), and to identify possible rehabilitation alternatives. Several nondestructive tests, as well as coring and trenching, were conducted in both distressed and nondistressed areas. Middepth horizontal cracks were found during routine repair and by the trenching performed in this study. It is believed that due to temperature variation at an early stage, horizontal cracks developed at the middepth interface between the steel and concrete. The truck traffic caused the horizontal cracks to deteriorate further. Repetitive truck traffic and thermal loading forced the concrete to crack vertically from the middepth where there were horizontal cracks. The closely spaced transverse and longitudinal cracks, along with the delamination, caused punchouts. Although the problem is not imminent, an immediate seal plus a 75 mm heavy-duty stone matrix asphalt (SMA) overlay will probably provide the most cost-effective remedy for this section of IH-30. Existing distressed areas should be repaired before the rehabilitation. To slow the deterioration, the district should use a latex modified chip seal or asphalt rubber seal (AC15-5TR) followed by a 75 mm heavy duty SMA. This is to provide bonding between the concrete and SMA overlay. If the district chooses to do nothing at this time, it will become costly in 2–3 years if current environmental and traffic conditions hold. The cost to repair a severely deteriorated continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) would be several times more than the 75 mm heavy duty SMA overlay.     

Comparison of Pulse Velocity and Impact-Echo Findings to Properties of Thin Disks from a Fire Damaged Slab

The engineering assessment of fire damage to a concrete slab provided the opportunity to compare the results of in situ, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques and laboratory testing of specimens taken from cores extracted from the fire damaged slab. This paper discusses and compares results of in situ pulse velocity and impact-echo testing with dynamic elastic modulus and air permeability index test results of 25?mm (1?in.) thick disks sawed from concrete cores removed from selected areas of the damaged slab. Both the NDE techniques and the laboratory testing of thin disks identified the presence of damage as a result of the fire. Analysis of the relatively thin concrete specimens permitted assessment of the presence and degree of damage in thin layers, and provided important and useful data on concrete properties for engineering assessment which was not available from NDE alone. Compressive strength results were consistent with the results of other tests but largely inconclusive by themselves. Impact-echo testing was able to identify the presence of a severely deteriorated concrete layer but could not identify the extent or depth of damage or clearly identify less damaged areas. A distressed layer of concrete was found by subsequent laboratory testing to be limited to a near-surface zone in some areas as suggested by the pulse velocity evaluation, but pulse velocity based analysis resulted in an overestimate of the depth of the damage. The findings highlighted a shortcoming of using conventional strength testing alone on investigations involving relatively thin layers of damage and pointed out several key limitations in the use and interpretation of nondestructive evaluation and associated analysis in a field assessment project.     

Multimodal Approach to Seismic Pavement Testing

A multimodal approach to nondestructive seismic pavement testing is described. The presented approach is based on multichannel analysis of all types of seismic waves propagating along the surface of the pavement. The multichannel data acquisition method is replaced by multichannel simulation with one receiver. This method uses only one accelerometer-receiver and a light hammer-source, to generate a synthetic receiver array. This data acquisition technique is made possible through careful triggering of the source and results in such simplification of the technique that it is made generally available. Multiple dispersion curves are automatically and objectively extracted using the multichannel analysis of surface waves processing scheme, which is described. Resulting dispersion curves in the high frequency range match with theoretical Lamb waves in a free plate. At lower frequencies there are several branches of dispersion curves corresponding to the lower layers of different stiffness in the pavement system. The observed behavior of multimodal dispersion curves is in agreement with theory, which has been validated through both numerical modeling and the transfer matrix method, by solving for complex wave numbers.     

Modeling Measured 3D Tire Contact Stresses in a Viscoelastic FE Pavement Model

Three‐dimensional (3D) contact stresses occurring between the road surface and the tire that were measured with the South African Vehicle Road Surface Pressure Transducer Array (VRSPTA) device under a moving wheel are transformed to a corresponding force/stress pattern representing the actual contact stress state under the tire by means of a software program. In combination with a dynamic load function such force patterns derived from these Stress‐in‐Motion (SIM) measurements with the VRSPTA device are used to introduce a more advanced load representation of the tire‐pavement interface into a three‐dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) model. Further, a method is presented to derive viscoelastic material properties of asphalt concrete (AC) mixes from dynamic frequency sweep shear (FS‐S) tests of lab specimens or field cores that can be used to define material behavior of the AC layers in the 3D FE pavement model. Linear elastic layered theory is utilized to validate the results of the FE computations in order to demonstrate that the FE method can successfully be used to include SIM measurements for more advanced analysis and design of pavements. First results of the 3D FE simulation of a load circle of the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) during accelerated pavement testing of a pavement test section are presented. These results encourage employment of the FE pavement model for further simulation work to assess the rutting potential of AC mixes in combination with different tire types and loading situations.     

Performance of Pile-Supported Bridge Approach Slabs

A large number of pile-supported bridge approach slabs in southeastern Louisiana were examined to identify the factors that affect their long-term performance. Design drawings and subsoil conditions at these sites as well as their traffic and maintenance records were compiled, and seven representative test sites were selected for thorough field investigation that included inspection of the approach slabs, bridge decks, bridge abutments, and roadway pavement. Field evaluation included walking profiler, falling-weight deflectometer (FWD), laser profiler, geodetic survey, soil borings, cone penetrometer, and nondestructive testing. Measurements made with the walking profiler agreed well with the geodetic survey. The FWD and nondestructive testing were effectively used to detect voids under the approach slab. Results of the study indicated that the current empirical methodology used by the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development for design of pile-supported approach slabs yields inconsistent field performance. It was concluded that this inconsistent performance is primarily due to the differences in roadway embankment design and construction and in subsoil conditions, which in turn affect the negative skin friction (downdrag) loads imparted on the piles. Impact of other variables such as ramp type, speed limit, traffic volume, and so on was found to be insignificant. Results of the field study were used to develop a new rating system for approach slabs (IRIS) based on International Roughness Index (IRI) measurements obtained with the laser profiler.     

Integrated Design/Construction/Operations Analysis for Fast-Track Urban Freeway Reconstruction

The California Department of Transportation is rehabilitating or reconstructing deteriorated urban freeways using long-life (30+ years) strategies. These pavements were constructed between 1955 and 1970 with design lives of 20 years. This paper summarizes preconstruction analysis of the fast-track pavement reconstruction on Interstate-15 (I-15) at Devore which used two one-roadbed continuous (about 210 h) closures with round-the-clock (24/7) operations. The integrated analysis concluded that the one-roadbed continuous closures are the most economical scenario when compared to traditional nighttime or weekend closures from the perspective of schedule, delay, and costs. The preconstruction was validated with as-built construction and traffic performances monitored during construction. The construction management plan—including contingency, incentives, and critical path method schedule—was developed utilizing the Construction Analysis for Pavement Rehabilitation Strategies (CA4PRS) computer model. The results of this planning study are useful for transportation agencies in developing highway rehabilitation strategies that balance the maximization of construction productivity with a minimization of traffic delay.     

Methodology for Determining Laboratory and In Situ Hydraulic Conductivity of Asphalt Permeable Friction Course

The permeable friction course (PFC) is a layer of porous asphalt pavement overlain on conventional impervious hot-mix asphalt or portland cement concrete. The drainage properties of PFC are typically considered to be governed primarily by two hydraulic properties: hydraulic conductivity and porosity. Both of these hydraulic properties change over the life cycle of the PFC layer due to clogging of the pore space by sediment. Therefore, determination of the hydraulic conductivity and porosity of PFC can be problematic. Laboratory and particularly field tests are necessary for accurately determining the hydraulic conductivity of the PFC layer. Taking multiple measurements over the life of the pavement shows how these hydraulic characteristics change with time and the varying roadway conditions at which they are evaluated. Constant head laboratory testing has shown that PFC experiences a nonlinear flow relationship as described by the Forchheimer equation. In addition to the laboratory analysis of the hydraulic characteristics, a falling head field test is recommended to determine the in situ hydraulic conductivity. This incorporates the modeling techniques used in the laboratory testing and applies them to the falling head conditions used in the field. The result is a nondestructive test procedure for determining the in situ hydraulic conductivity which is necessary for estimating the extent to which the benefits associated with the drainage characteristics of the PFC layer will persist.     

Inspection of Quebec Street Bridge in Denver, Colorado: Destructive and Nondestructive Testing

Nondestructive testing techniques have been historically and commonly used to evaluate the quality of existing concrete structures. Several traditional nondestructive testing techniques were applied to the pier caps of the Quebec Street Bridge over Air Lawn Road, constructed in 1971, which is located in Denver, Colorado. The techniques utilized included visual inspection, hammer sounding, Schmidt hammer rebounding, and ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, including tomographic imaging. Results of the nondestructive tests were used to determine areas to be tested with local destructive tests. These tests included concrete compressive strengths, chloride testing, and petrographic testing. This paper presents the application and interpretation of common nondestructive testing techniques and the consequent repair, rehabilitation, and maintenance decisions. The overall results indicate that inside cores of all the pier caps are healthy, sound concrete. On all of the pier caps, extensive exterior concrete layer rehabilitation needed to be completed.     

Use of the Long-Term Pavement Performance Database in the Pavement Engineering Curriculum

In this paper the writers demonstrate the inclusion of the Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP-DATAPAVE 3.0) data within the pavement engineering curriculum at Michigan State University (MSU). The paper presents two examples, one from an undergraduate course on pavement rehabilitation and one from a graduate course on pavement analysis and design. These examples illustrate the use of LTPP data in computing responses, predicting traffic, developing rehabilitation strategies, and predicting performance of both rigid and flexible pavements.