An econometric analysis of residential consumption of fuelwood in a mountainous prefecture of Northern Greece

Biomass is a renewable energy source of increasing importance, especially since the energy policies of countries today are largely focused on renewable energy. It is a renewable energy source with significant potential to contribute to the energy needs of modern society, both for developing and developed countries around the world. One very important source of biomass is wood and fuelwood in particular. This article aims at providing an empirical analysis of household fuelwood consumption and the determinants of the choice to use the specific energy for heating and cooking in a district of Northern Greece. In the current empirical analysis several household fuelwood consumption models are employed, such as GLM, Tobit and Heckman regression-based techniques. The results show that household sociological and economical characteristics as well as more general environmental issues are suitable to explain differences towards fuelwood consumption for space heating and cooking. We additionally evaluate the household fuelwood consumption for heating through the statistical analyses conducted.     

Fuelwood: The “other” renewable energy source for Africa?

In recent years, increasing concerns over rising oil prices, supply shortfalls and the environmental impacts of fossil fuel use have fed growing interest in renewable energy sources for Sub-Saharan Africa. Although traditional biofuels already enjoy widespread popularity, their use has often been actively discouraged due to the lingering influence of “fuelwood crisis” era narratives. In particular, urban fuelwood consumption is frequently portrayed as a cause of environmental degradation leading to energy insecurity among low-income households, especially where the resource is commercialized. Such views have had significant influence among policy makers, often resulting in repressive forestry legislation. In contrast, however, a number of researchers have demonstrated that wood energy dependence is often not a significant cause of deforestation and can provide important livelihood opportunities. This article reassesses urban fuelwood sourcing and its impacts using a recent case study conducted by the authors in Maun, Botswana and results previously reported in the literature. Findings indicate that although harvesting is unregulated, its impacts are significantly mitigated by collectors' strong preferences for source sites with abundant dead wood, low competition and recognized access rights. As well, fuelwood vending is found to provide critical support to rural incomes and a key source of low-cost urban energy. As such, the benefits of fuelwood use and avoidance of negative effects will most effectively be achieved by decentralised management approaches that build on local institutions and understandings of the resource.     

The requirement and utilization of renewable energy technologies in Chinese rural areas

The tendency of using commercial fossil energy, especially high-quality energy, will increase rapidly along with the rural economic development in China. However, energy consumption for household use in most rural areas still relies on firewood or straw, except the urban suburb. The application and development of renewable energy has been and should play an important role in China. In order to integrate and adapt renewable energy technologies, we need to carefully study the specific economic and social conditions of the rural economic development.     

Emerging energy scenario in Western Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh

The GHGs emmited by using conventional energy sources rapid industrialization and development in hills, are contributing global warming, which has resulted in melting of glaciers located in the state at the rate of 0.3–20 m² per year as per recent studies. The shrinking of glaciers, which are the main source of water of Himalayan rivers, can have an adverse impact on the future of hydro-power projects, many of which may become non-functional during next 40–50 years if the current trend of melting of glaciers continues and the other renewable energy sources are required to be tapped to supplement the declining hydro-electricity generation. The energy consumption for cooking, lighting and space heating in the Western Himalayan Indian state of Himachal Pradesh, is highest in the northern India. The fuelwood consumption constitutes about 52% of the total energy consumption of the state. About 2.7 h per person per trip in the rural areas, are spent for the collection of fuelwood mainly during winters. A number of options and potential of renewable energy sources for cooking, heating and lighting in the state have been discussed. The future policy interventions in the energy sector are also presented.     

Study on sustainable development of rural household energy in northern China

The status of rural household energy consumption plays an important role in farmers’ daily life, especially in developing countries or regions. Here, we review the evolution of the rural household energy consumption structure in northern China from 1996 to 2005. Studies indicate that the proportion of straw, firewood, and coal consumption in total energy consumption have remained at 88.8–91.0%, whereas the proportion of high-quality commercial energy and modern renewable energy is still very low. The main challenges for the sustainable development of rural household energy supply are an unreasonable energy consumption structure, low-energy efficiency, serious environmental degradation, a large gap in energy supply among regions, and difficulty in developing renewable energy. We suggest some countermeasures to overcome the obstacles involved in the sustainable development of rural household energy in northern China, from energy sources to sociopolitical policies.     

Effect of fuelwood scarcity and socio-economic factors on household bio-based energy use and energy substitution in rural Ethiopia

In Ethiopia biomass is predominantly utilized for household energy needs often using inefficient rudimentary stoves which cause adverse environmental and welfare effects. This paper examined the contribution of biomass resources to rural household energy use and energy substitution. The analysis applied the ordinary least square in the final stage estimation of fuelwood and overall biomass energy consumption by using predicted shadow prices. The paper used Tobit model to estimate charcoal and agricultural fuel consumption due to the presence of censoring. An increase in fuelwood shadow price was associated with reduced household fuelwood consumption with price elasticity of −0.38. The cross price elasticity between fuelwood and agricultural fuels revealed no evidence of energy substitution, which conforms to the findings of previous studies. Household access to electricity was associated with lower household biomass energy utilization but kerosene was not fuelwood substitute. Household energy use conformed to the ‘fuel stacking’ or ‘multiple fuel use’ concept, but households preferred modern energy options as welfare increased in areas where modern energy is available. This suggests that there is a promising prospect for fuel-transition, but access to modern energy and economic growth have key roles. The findings suggest that a concerted policy effort is required that would help diversify rural livelihoods, improve living standards and encourage economic growth, encourage inter-fuel substitution through improved modern energy access and afforestation to increase biomass supply.     

The role of renewables in meeting rural energy needs in South Asia

South Asia is the poorest and most deprived region in the world. Rural population represent upto 75% of its population. Traditionally the rural masses have been dependent on fuelwood and agro-residues - both due to poverty and due to lack of local fossil resources. South Asia is expected to continue its dependence on renewable sources of energy for meeting rural energy needs to the year 2010. New renewables are expected to enter rural markets as technology develops.     

Micro-watershed level population based fuelwood consumption dynamics: Implications of seasonal vs. annual models for sustainable energy resource planning

Most developing countries such as India use biomass as a primary source of energy especially in domestic sectors in the rural area. The increasing population exerts more pressure on the biomass resource thereby initiating energy crisis in the region. The issue of shortage of fuelwood in the remote mountain regions is increasing since the alternative energy resources have limitations either due to poor economic condition of the people, complex technology involved or being inaccessible due to remoteness. It is also seen that the use of traditional biomass as a source of energy will improve the livelihood conditions of the people and it will give ecological benefits to the region if other associated factors like health, gender etc. are taken care of and thus the planners aim to focus on sustaining the natural fuelwood resources. The present paper attempts to predict the future fuelwood demand based on the present consumption pattern in the upland villages of Indian Himalaya. Major consumption characteristics such as fuelwood consumption at different altitude and per capita fuelwood consumption (PCFC) are studied. Population dynamics model is postulated in order to assess future population vs. fuelwood consumption scenario, thereby projecting the future population and the future fuelwood demand in the region.It is observed that variations in fuelwood consumption exist at different altitudes in the hilly region. Mathematical modelling and time-series simulation model was proposed and validated model to predict the future expected demand of fuelwood resources in Phakot watershed. Based on the projected population and season based fuelwood requirements, the watershed will have a total fuelwood demand of 19,327 t in 2011 which is expected to reach 36,462 t in 2021. Such studies on the future resource demand trends will help in finding suitable region-specific and need-based alternative strategies for achieving sustainable fuelwood management at the micro-level.     

Potential of renewable hydrogen production for energy supply in Hong Kong

Hong Kong is highly vulnerable to energy and economic security due to the heavy dependence on imported fossil fuels. The combustion of fossil fuels also causes serious environmental pollution. Therefore, it is important to explore the opportunities for clean renewable energy for long-term energy supply. Hong Kong has the potential to develop clean renewable hydrogen energy to improve the environmental performance. This paper reviews the recent development of hydrogen production technologies, followed by an overview of the renewable energy sources and a discussion about potential applications for renewable hydrogen production in Hong Kong. The results show that although renewable energy resources cannot entirely satisfy the energy demand in Hong Kong, solar energy, wind power, and biomass are available renewable sources for significant hydrogen production. A system consisting of wind turbines and photovoltaic (PV) panels coupled with electrolyzers is a promising design to produce hydrogen. Biomass, especially organic waste, offers an economical, environmental-friendly way for renewable hydrogen production. The achievable hydrogen energy output would be as much as 40% of the total energy consumption in transportation.     

Fuelwood consumption patterns in Fakot watershed, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand

Biomass is one of the key energy sources in rural India and constitutes 75% of the total energy consumption. In the tough mountain terrain, the consumption pattern depends on the availability of the resources as well as socio-economic conditions of the people. The present study is conducted at Fakot micro-watershed in Garhwal district of Uttarakhand, India. The present paper explores the variations in fuelwood consumption pattern in the watershed level at different altitudes with respect to family size. In the present study, the fuelwood consumption in the watershed is in the range of 455-2388 gm/person/day. Absence of serial autocorrelation in the seasonal fuel consumption data is observed. Season specific models for fuel consumption are proposed.     

Biomass energy potential in Turkey

Biomass energy includes fuelwood, agricultural residues, animal wastes, charcoal and other fuels derived from biological sources. It currently accounts for about 14% of world energy consumption. Biomass is the main source of energy for many developed and developing countries. In Turkey energy wood is available in the form of forest chips, fuelwood, wood waste, wood pellets, and it is also produced to a very limited extent from willow crops in short rotation forestry. The major part of wood harvested in the forest area (approximately 10 million ha) ends up as energy wood directly or indirectly after having been used for other purposes first. An overview of biomass potential and utilization in Turkey is presented. In 1999, the biomass share of the total energy consumption of the country is 10 percent. The level of fuelwood use together with that of other agricultural and animal wastes is compared with the commercial energy use within the country's global energy balance. The possibilities of increasing fuelwood production through afforestation programmes and substitution for commercial fuels are discussed. Biogas utilization in the rural regions is also reviewed, emphasizing its possible contribution.     

Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and economic activities: Further evidence from OECD countries

This article examines the dynamic relationship between renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and industrial output and GDP growth in OECD countries using data over the period of 1980–2011. The panel cointegration technique allowing structural breaks is used for empirical investigation. The results show that there is a long-term equilibrium relationship among non-renewable and renewable energy sources, industrial output and economic growth. The panel causality analyses show bidirectional causality between industrial output and both renewable and non-renewable energy consumption in the short and long run. However, there is evidence of bidirectional short-run relationship between GDP growth and non-renewable energy consumption while unidirectional causality between GDP growth and renewable energy consumption. These results indicate that OECD economies still remain energy-dependent for their industrial output as well as overall economic growth. However, expansion of renewable energy sources is a viable solution for addressing energy security and climate change issues, and gradually substituting renewable to non-renewable energy sources could enhance a sustainable energy economy.     

Forests,fuelwood and livelihoods—energy transition patterns in eastern Indonesia

The central thesis of the energy ladder model is a unidirectional transition from primitive to advance fuel with increased affluence of households. Although now largely discredited, this assumption remains a foundation of laissez-faire policies that anticipate energy transition resulting spontaneous forest recovery with economic development. Our results suggest that such policies can undermine broader policy objectives and actually worsen forest conditions in rural Indonesia. Based on a case study of forest margin communities in eastern Indonesia, we demonstrate that fuel subsidy reform did little to reduce rural household demand for fuelwood, while dramatically increasing fuelwood demand for processing agricultural products. Our results show how household decisions related to fuel sources are affected by non-economic considerations and external factors, such as opportunities to sell fuelwood. We argue that policy interventions that encourage energy transition of households do not necessarily improve forest conditions, as household fuelwood use may be a symptom, rather than a driver of deforestation and forest degradation. Thus policies to improve forest conditions should focus more on addressing the market environment of forest-margin communities, providing energy alternatives to small industries that are often the larger consumers of fuelwood.     

农村可再生能源适用技术的经济性分析

在农村和城市能源消费模式有很大的区别,在城市能源消费具有相当的密集性,而大部分可再生能源由于其资源密集度较低以及市场竞争能力不足不适宜在城市应用,但在农村则不会造成很大问题,因为农村的用能密集度也不高。一些可再生能源利用技术在农村发展和生态环境保护中发挥了重要的作用,促进了农村的可持续发展。文章将以实例研究的形式重点讨论几种适用山区农村和平原农村的可再生能源利用技术的经验性及其适应性。     

The state of renewable energy harnessing in Tanzania

This paper details the state of renewable energy development in Tanzania and biomass energy supply and consumption. It also highlights the various levels of renewable energy programmes in the country and the Government strategy to improve renewable energy production and utilization technologies. A number of problems hindering the development of renewable energy technologies have been identified and discussed. Biomass accounts for 92% of final energy consumption in Tanzania and will continue to dominate the national energy balance. For example, fuelwood and agricultural residues used to meet domestic energy needs account for 80% of the domestic energy requirements, while commercial energy such as kerosene, electricity and liquefied petroleum gas account for 1%. Total biomass resources for 1990 was 27 million tonnes of oil equivalent (TOE) from the natural forests. Other major industrial biomass energy sources include sawmill industry, sugarcane plantations, sugar industry by-products, cashew nut industry, coffee industry and sisal industry. The major biomass consumers include woodfuel for domestic use, tobacco production, brick making, tea drying and fish smoking. While there are efforts to develop other renewable sources of energy such as solar, wind and minihydros, there are also problems hindering their development. They include the lack of adequate data on the actual energy potential of these sources as well as the lack of local capability to design and manufacture energy related equipment and spare parts.     

Potential application of renewable energy for rural electrification in Malaysia

Energy poverty and lack of electricity in rural areas exacerbate the poverty of the developing countries. In Malaysia, 3.8% of the population lives below the poverty line and most of them are settled in rural areas. The electricity coverage in poor states is about 79% in comparison with 99.62% in Peninsular Malaysia. The renewable energy sources can be considered the best alternative to reduce the energy poverty of the rural areas where the grid extension through a difficult terrain and thick jungle is not possible or economic. In this study, the potential for applying renewable sources – solar, wind and hydropower – for rural electrification is investigated, especially in the poorest States. A comparative study on rural electrification policies, in order to have community approval, appropriate siting and financial benefits for the rural community, while considering the three categories of social, institutional and economic issues, is also examined. Finally, the Malaysian policies of rural electrification by applying renewable sources are explained. It is found that in Malaysia, with a maximum solar radiation of about 6.027 kWh/m² per day in Sabah and 5.303 kWh/m² per day in Sarawak, the potential for applying solar energy for electrification is too high. However, the potential for micro-hydropower in Sabah and Sarawak is found to be 3182 kW and 6317 kW through 18 and 22 sites, respectively.     

Potential of renewable energy systems in China

Along with high-speed economic development and increasing energy consumption, the Chinese Government faces a growing pressure to maintain the balance between energy supply and demand. In 2009, China has become both the largest energy consumer and CO₂ emitting country in the world. In this case, the inappropriate energy consumption structure should be changed. As an alternative, a suitable infrastructure for the implementation of renewable energy may serve as a long-term sustainable solution. The perspective of a 100% renewable energy system has been analyzed and discussed in some countries previously. In this process, assessment of domestic renewable energy sources is the first step. Then appropriate methodologies are needed to perform energy system analyses involving the integration of more sustainable strategies. Denmark may serve as an example of how sustainable strategies can be implemented. The Danish system has demonstrated the possibility of converting into a 100% renewable energy system. This paper discusses the perspective of renewable energy in China firstly, and then analyses whether it is suitable to adopt similar methodologies applied in other countries as China approaches a renewable energy system. The conclusion is that China’s domestic renewable energy sources are abundant and show the possibility to cover future energy demand; the methodologies used to analyse a 100% renewable energy system are applicable in China. Therefore, proposing an analysis of a 100% renewable energy system in China is not unreasonable.     

Renewable energy resources for electricity generation in Sudan

Electricity reaches only about 30% of Sudan's more than 40 M population; this mainly in urban areas. Hence, a major problem for rural people is the inadequate supply of power for lighting, heating, cooking, cooling, water pumping, radio or TV communications and security services. Petroleum product supplies, including diesel, kerosene and LPG are irregular and often subject to sudden price increases. Because of the inadequate supply of these fuels, women trek great distances into the forest to collect fuelwood, charcoal and biomass residues from animal and agriculture, account for more than half of total energy consumption. Most of this is utilised for cooking and heating water in rural and semi urban areas and by the urban poor. It is a need to provide alternative renewable energy sources to enhance women's participation in, and benefit from development. Household energy was the first energy sector that paid explicit attention to women and their energy needs. The contribution of women to environmental policy is largely ignored. Decision-making and policy formulation at all environmental levels, i.e., conservation, protection and rehabilitation and environmental management are more or less a male preserve. Women have been involved in promotion of appropriate energy technologies, primarily for rural population over the past 15 years. This article highlights the experience of working with rural people in seeking solutions for community energy needs through renewable environmentally friendly energy technologies.     

Energy production and sustainable energy policies in Turkey

Turkey's demand for energy and electricity is increasing rapidly. Turkey is heavily dependent on expensive imported energy resources that place a big burden on the economy and air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern in the country. Turkey's energy production meets nearly 28% of its total primary energy consumption. As would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local, regional and global levels. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey's carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions have grown along with its energy consumption. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important renewable sources are hydropower, biomass, geothermal, solar and wind. Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of these renewable energy sources. Turkey has a great and ever-intensifying need for power and water supplies and they also have the greatest remaining hydro potential. Hydropower and especially small hydropower are emphasized as Turkey's renewable energy sources. Turkey's hydro electric potential can meet 33–46% of its electric energy demand in 2020 and this potential may easily and economically be developed. This paper presents a review of the potential and utilization of the renewable energy sources in Turkey.