State and local economic impacts from wind energy projects: Texas case study

This paper uses the Jobs and Economic Development Impacts (JEDI) model to estimate economic impacts from 1398 MW of wind power development in four counties in west Texas. Project-specific impacts are estimated at the local level (i.e., within a 100-mile radius around the wind farms) and at the state level. The primary economic policy question addressed is how investment in wind energy affects the state and local communities where the wind farms are built. During the four-year construction phase approximately 4100 FTE (full time equivalents) jobs were supported with turbine and supply chain impacts accounting for 58% of all jobs generated. Total lifetime economic activity to the state from the projects equated to more than $1.8 billion, or $1.3 million per MW of installed capacity. The total economic activity to the local communities was also substantial, equating to nearly $730 million over the assumed 20-year life cycle of the farms, or $0.52 million per MW of installed capacity. Given the current level of impacts observed, and the potential for increased impacts via greater utilization of instate manufacturing capacity and the development of trained wind industry specific laborers, Texas appears to be well positioned to see increasing impacts from continued wind development.     

Evaluating the environmental impacts of recycling wind turbines

Wind power is one of the fastest growing renewable energy sources. The wind turbines have an expected design lifetime in the range of 20 to 25 years after which decommissioning is expected. The trend in the wind turbine industry is that the turbines increase in size—especially when considering offshore wind turbines in the 7 to 8 MW size range. Life cycle assessments show that the materials used for manufacturing the turbines accounts for 70 to 80% of the environmental impact, so ensuring optimal recycling at the end‐of‐service‐life is of economic and environmental interest and in line with the principles of transitioning towards a circular economy. The decommissioning and recycling process is analysed in this paper, with special considerations given to the environmental aspects of a theoretical 100% recyclability scenario. This includes cradle‐to‐gate life‐cycle inventory analysis of the materials, embedded energy, and CO₂‐equivalent emissions. The findings show that established recycling methods are present for most of the materials and that recycling of a 60 MW wind park at end‐of‐service‐life provides environmental benefits as well as lowering the natural resource use and securing resources for use in the future. The saved energy is estimated to approximately 81 TJ. The reduction in emissions related to the recycling of wind turbine material totals approximately 7351 ton CO₂.     

Assessing the life cycle environmental impacts of wind power: A review of present knowledge and research needs

We critically review present knowledge of the life cycle environmental impacts of wind power. We find that the current body of life cycle assessments (LCA) of wind power provides a fairly good overall understanding of fossil energy use and associated pollution; our survey of results that appear in existing literature give mean values (± standard deviation) of, e.g., 0.060 (±0.058) kW h energy used and 19 (±13) g CO₂e emitted per kW h electricity, suggesting good environmental performance vis-à-vis fossil-based power. Total emissions of onshore and offshore wind farms are comparable. The bulk of emissions generally occur in the production of components; onshore, the wind turbine dominates, while offshore, the substructure becomes relatively more important. Strong positive effects of scale are present in the lower end of the turbine size spectrum, but there is no clear evidence for such effects for MW-sized units. We identify weaknesses and gaps in knowledge that future research may address. This includes poorly understood impacts in categories of toxicity and resource depletion, lack of empirical basis for assumptions about replacement of parts, and apparent lack of detailed considerations of offshore operations for wind farms in ocean waters. We argue that applications of the avoided burden method to model recycling benefits generally lack transparency and may be inconsistent. Assumed capacity factor values are generally higher than current mean realized values. Finally, we discuss the need for LCA research to move beyond unit-based assessments in order to address temporal aspects and the scale of impacts.     

The environmental impacts of arable coppice power generation — A case study from Cornwall, UK

This paper is concerned with the assessment of the environmental impacts associated with a 2.5MW biopower station, fuelled by arable coppice, to be developed at a rural site in Cornwall, South West England. The project represents a new form of energy production for the UK and the first one of its type to be subject to environmental assessment in this country. The study was carried out on behalf of South Western Power Ltd and in support of its application for planning consent to build and operate the facility. The environmental assessment (EA) was comprehensive and reviewed the possible impacts of the plant on air and water quality; noise; landscape; socio economics, ecology and cultural heritage. Impacts during the construction phase were also considered.The study concluded that, with the exception of visual amenity, the plant would have no significant environmental impacts. Mitigation measures to reduce visual impacts in the form of landscaping around the site were introduced to reduce visual intrusion. Positive benefits would be derived through employment potential and through reductions in greenhouse gases and other polluting emissions. The development of this type of renewable energy plant would represent a significant step towards establishing a new type of environmental benign energy production method in the UK.     

GIS-based environmental assessment of wind energy systems for spatial planning: A case study from Western Turkey

Increasing population and life standards causes fossil fuel consumption to increase. Due to this increasing consumption, fossil fuels are being depleted rapidly. In addition to rapid exhaustion, another important problem associated with fossil fuels is that their consumption has major negative impacts on the environment. Therefore, many countries around the world have included renewable energy systems (RES) in their future energy plans so that they can produce reliable and environmentally friendly energy. Parallel to this trend, various RES have been identified and recently integrated into the current energy network of Turkey as well. However, it should be recognized that renewable energy resources are not fully environmentally safe. Different RES are associated with different environmental impacts. In planning the future energy development of a country, evaluation of renewable energy resources potentials together with their associated environmental impacts is critical. The aim of this study is to create a decision support system for site selection of wind turbines using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools. Wind energy potential and environmental fitness/acceptability are used as decision criteria for the site selection process. Potential environmental impacts of wind generation are identified in accordance with Turkish legislations and previous studies; and represented as fuzzy objectives of the decision problem. Wind potential map of Turkey generated by General Directorate of Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development is used to identify economically feasible locations in terms of wind energy generation. A study area composed of Usak, Aydin, Denizli, Mugla, and Burdur provinces in Turkey is selected and divided into 250 m × 250 m grids. Each grid represents an alternative location for a wind turbine or group of wind turbines. Fuzzy environmental objectives such as “Acceptable in terms of noise level”, “Acceptable in terms of bird habitat”, “Acceptable in terms of safety and aesthetics” and “Safe in terms of natural reserves” associated with wind turbines are identified based on previous research and each of these objectives are represented by a fuzzy set. Individual satisfaction degree of each of these environmental objectives for each grid is calculated. Then these individual satisfactions are aggregated into an overall satisfaction degree using various aggregator operators such as “and”, “or”, and “order weighted averaging.” Thus, an overall satisfaction degree of all the environmental objectives is obtained for each grid in the study area. A map of environmental fitness is developed in GIS environment by using these overall satisfaction degrees. Then this map is utilized together with the wind potential map of Turkey to identify both potentially and environmentally feasible wind turbine locations within the study area.     

Economic,environmental, and social impacts of the hydrogen supply system combining wind power and natural gas

Hydrogen economy is one of the most attractive alternatives to the current carbon-based energy system, since it can be produced from diverse resources and used as a carbon-free energy carrier from the end-user's perspective. This study proposes a hybrid hydrogen supply system for the transport sector, which includes all the life stages from production, transport, and storage to final distribution (fueling stations). Particularly, we consider two types of resources for hydrogen production (i.e., renewable wind power and conventional natural gas) to identify the benefits and bottlenecks of hydrogen supply systems from the economic, environmental, and social perspectives. To achieve this goal, rigorous process models for the involved processes (i.e., hydrogen production by steam methane reforming from natural gas and water electrolysis using wind power, and hydrogen storage and transport) are developed. To illustrate the capability of the proposed system, we conducted a design problem within the hydrogen supply system in Jeju Island, Korea. In this case study, three scenarios were generated by combining different hydrogen production options: 1) wind power-based hydrogen production, 2) natural gas-based hydrogen production, and 3) integrated hydrogen production. As a result, we discussed the optimal hydrogen supply system, from the life cycle perspective, by identifying technical bottlenecks, major cost-drivers, and CO₂ burdens.     

A fuzzy model for wind speed prediction and power generation in wind parks using spatial correlation

In this paper, a fuzzy model is suggested for the prediction of wind speed and the produced electrical power at a wind park. The model is trained using a genetic algorithm-based learning scheme. The training set includes wind speed and direction data, measured at neighboring sites up to 30 km away from the wind turbine clusters. Extensive simulation results are shown for two application cases, providing wind speed forecasts from 30 min to 2 h ahead. It is demonstrated that the suggested model achieves an adequate understanding of the problem while it exhibits significant improvement compared to the persistent method.     

A thorough investigation for development of hydrogen projects from wind energy: A case study

Increasing energy demand has led to a substantial growth in the use of wind energy across the world, which can be attributed to the low initial and running costs and rapid and easy deployment of this technology. The development of hydrogen from wind energy is an excellent way to store the excess wind power produced, as the produced hydrogen can be used not only as clean fuel but also as input for various industries. Considering the good wind potentials of Yazd province, the variety of industries that are active in this area, and the central location of this province in Iran, which gives it ample access to major transport routes and other industrial hubs, hydrogen production from wind power in this province could benefit not only this region but the entire country. Given these considerations, we conducted a technical, economic, and environmental assessment of the potential for wind power generation and hydrogen production in Yazd province. Overall, the assessments showed that the best locations for harvesting wind energy in this province are Bahabad and Halvan stations. For these two stations, it is recommended to use EWT DW 52-900 turbine to take advantage of its higher nominal capacity to achieve higher electricity and hydrogen output and emission reduction. For Abarkoh and Kerit stations, which have a low wind energy potential, it is recommended to use small turbines such as Eovent EVA120 H-Darrieus. Also, economic and technical assessments showed that it is not economically justified to harvest wind energy in Ardakan station. The results of ranking the stations with the Step-wise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) and Evaluation based on Distance from Average Solution (EDAS) techniques showed that Bahabad station was introduced as the best place to produce hydrogen from wind energy.     

Economic feasibility of electricity generation from wind farms: A case study

Environmental problems, population growth, and the recent energy crisis have emphasized the need for zero-emission technologies while also ensuring economic feasibility. This work presents the economic advantages of using wind energy for power generation in Iran. A theoretical model is developed, which predicts the output power under various geographical and operating conditions. The wind data (speed and direction) of 2-h interval long-term period from December 2010 to October 2015 was adopted and analyzed to evaluate the levelized costs of electricity (COE) for power generation from wind farms (Arsanjan, Lamerd, and Abadeh) for the year 2018 per time. The influence of two important geographical factors namely winds speed and air humidity on output power also was studied. The results showed that the output power increases continuously when the wind speed varies from 2.0 to 2.6 m/s probably due to the compression of air passing through the wind turbine.     

Application of a ray theory model to the prediction of noise emissions from isolated wind turbines and wind parks

Various propagation models have been developed to estimate the level of noise near residential areas. Predictions and measurements have proven that proper modelling of the propagation medium is of particular importance. In the present work, calculations are performed using a ray theory methodology. The ray trajectory and transport equations are derived from the linear acoustics equations for a moving medium in three dimensions. Ground and atmospheric absorption, wave refraction and diffraction and atmospheric turbulence are taken into account by introducing appropriate coefficients in the equations. In the case of a wind turbine (W/T) it is assumed that noise is produced by a point source located at the rotor centre. Given the sound power spectrum, the noise spectrum at the receiver is obtained by solving the axisymmetric propagation problem. The procedure consists of (a) finding the eigenrays, (b) calculating the energy losses along the eigenrays and (c) synthesizing the sound pressure level (SPL) by superposing the contributions of the eigenrays. In the case of a wind park the total SPL is calculated by superposing the contributions of all W/Ts. Application is made to five cases of isolated W/Ts in terrains of varying complexity. In flat or even smooth terrain the predictions agree well with the measurements. In complex terrain the predictions can be considered satisfactory, taking into account the assumption of constant wind velocity profile. Application to a wind park shows clearly the influence of the terrain on the wind velocity and consequently on the SPL. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley &Sons, Ltd.     

A review and design study of blade testing systems for utility-scale wind turbines

Since the blades are one of the most critical components of a wind turbine, representative samples must be experimentally tested in order to ensure that the actual performance of the blades is consistent with their specifications. In particular, it must be demonstrated that the blade can withstand both the ultimate loads and the fatigue loads to which the blade is expected to be subjected during its design service life. In general, there are basically two types of blade testing: static testing and fatigue (or dynamic) testing. This paper includes a summary review of different utility-scale wind turbine blade testing methods and the initial design study of a novel concept for tri-axial testing of large wind turbine blades. This new design is based on a blade testing method that excites the blade in flap-wise and edgewise direction simultaneously. The flap motion of the blade is caused by a dual-axis blade resonance excitation system (BREX). Edgewise motion is delivered by the use of two inclined hydraulic actuators and linear guide rail system is used to move the inclined actuators in the flap-wise direction along the blade motion. The hydraulic system and linear guide rail requirements are analyzed and an initial cost estimate of the proposed system is presented. Recommendations for future work on this proposed system are given in the final section of this work.     

On the wind power rejection in the islands of Crete and Rhodes

Crete and Rhodes represent the two biggest isolated power systems in Greece. The energy production in both islands is based on thermal power plants. The annual wind energy rejection percentage is calculated for Crete and Rhodes in this paper. The rejected wind energy is defined as the electric energy produced by the wind turbines and not absorbed by the utility network, mainly due to power production system's stability and dynamic security reasons. A parametric calculation of the annual wind energy rejection percentage, in terms of the installed wind power, the power demand and the maximum allowed wind power instant penetration percentage, is accomplished. The methodology takes into account (i) the wind power penetration probability, restricted by the thermal generators technical minima and the maximum allowed wind power instant penetration percentage over the instant power demand; and (ii) the wind power production probability, derived by the islands' wind potential. The present paper indicates that isolated power systems which are based on thermal power plants have a limited wind power installation capacity—in order to achieve and maintain an adequate level of system stability. For a maximum wind power instant penetration percentage of 30% of the power demand, in order to ensure an annual wind energy rejection percentage less than 10%, the total installed wind power should not exceed the 40% of the mean annual power demand. The results of this paper are applicable to medium and great size isolated power systems, with particular features: (i) the power production is based on thermal power plants; (ii) the power demand exhibits intensive seasonal variations and is uncorrelated to the wind data; (iii) the mean annual power demand is greater than 10MW; and (iv) a high wind potential, presenting mean annual wind velocity values greater than 7·5ms^?1, is recorded. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley &Sons, Ltd.     

Prioritizing of wind farm locations for hydrogen production: A case study

Many advantages of renewable energies, especially wind energy, such as abundance, permanence, and lack of pollution has encouraged many industrialized and developing countries to focus more on these clean and economic sources of energy. Identifying a good location that is suitable for the construction of a wind farm is one of the important initial steps in harnessing wind energy which is assessed this study. The purpose of this study is to prioritize and rank 13 cities of Fars province in Iran, in terms of their suitability for the construction of a wind farm. Six important criteria were used to prioritize and rank the cities. Wind power density is the most important criterion among these criteria which is calculated by obtaining the 3-h wind speed data between 2004 and 2013. DEA (Data Envelopment Analysis) method is used for prioritizing and ranking cities, and then AHP (Analytical Hierarchy Process), and FTOPSIS (Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) methods are used to assess the validity of results. It is concluded that Izadkhast city is the suggested location for the construction of wind farm. The utilizing a wind-hydrogen energy conversion system will result in a substantial amount of hydrogen production (averagely 21.9 ton/year) when a 900 kW wind turbine is installed in this location.     

Urban heat island in southern Europe: The case study of Hania, Crete

The aim of the present paper is to analyze the results of the urban heat island research for a coastal densely built small Mediterranean town namely Hania, Crete, Greece. The specific research targets to verify the existence, the intensity, the size and the form of the urban heat island phenomenon in the specific region as well as to understand its correlation with the local weather conditions. Nine urban and three rural meteorological stations are used for this study. Temperature and relative humidity measurements are collected from May 26, 2007 until October 24, 2007. In parallel, meteorological data including wind speed and direction, barometric pressure, sunlight and precipitation for the specific region are collected and elaborated for cross-correlation with the appearance of the urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon. During summer period, where the temperature is high, the UHI takes its maximum intensity, of about 8 °C. Also, the form of the UHI is strongly influenced from the wind speed and direction. The northern winds expand the UHI front, while the western winds contribute to the UHI reduction. Finally the Discomfort Index (DI) is calculated for the 2007 summer period to indicate the outdoor living conditions.     

A methodology for the efficient computer representation of dynamic power systems: Application to wind parks

This contribution presents a methodology to efficiently obtain the numerical and computer solution of dynamic power systems with high penetration of wind turbines. Due to the excessive computational load required to solve the abc models that represent the behavior of the wind turbines, a parallel processing scheme is proposed to enhance the solution of the overall system. Case studies are presented which demonstrate the effectiveness and applications of the proposed methodology. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Renewable energy sources (RES) projects and their barriers on a regional scale: The case study of wind parks in the Dodecanese islands, Greece

The increasing energy challenges faced, in particular, by isolated communities, such as insular communities, call for an integrated, flexible and easy-to-apply methodology aiming at providing a list of renewable energy sources) (RES) projects capable to reduce green house gas (GHG) emissions, satisfy future energy forecasts and reach the objectives of international/national energy directives and obligations, as, for example, the ones set by the Kyoto Protocol by 2010. The EU project EMERGENCE 2010 developed such a methodology that is implemented here in the case study of wind parks in the Dodecanese islands in Greece. The results obtained consist of a final list of financially viable RES wind projects, for which various barriers have been previously identified and assessed. The additional advantages of the proposed methodology is that besides providing as an end result a comprehensive list of RES projects adopted to specific criteria and regional priorities, it also allows space for involving – from early stages – the local community and stakeholders in the decision-making process (participatory planning); in this way, the EMERGENCE 2010 methodology may assist towards the RES promotion and public acceptance, the profitability of RES investments and the regional sustainable development.     

Co-benefits analysis on climate change and environmental effects of wind-power: A case study from Xinjiang,China

The combustion of fossil fuel contributes to not only global warming but also the emissions of air pollutants. In China, the rapid growth of energy consumption leads to a large quantity of greenhouse gas (GHG) and air pollutant emissions. Although many measures have been proposed by the local governments to mitigate the GHG emissions and improve air quality, limited economic resources slow the efforts of the local government to implement measures to control both types of emissions. The co-benefits approach can use resources efficiently to solve multiple environmental problems. In this study, we first calculated the CO₂ and air pollutants (SO₂, NO_x and PM_2.5) emissions in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Then, the co-benefits of wind power, including mitigation of CO₂ and air pollutants (SO₂, NO_x and PM_2.5) emissions and water savings, were assessed and quantified in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. The results demonstrate that, during the 11th five-year period (2006–2010), emissions mitigation by wind power accounted for 4.88% (1065 × 10⁴ t) of CO₂, 4.31% (4.38 × 10⁴ t) of SO₂, 8.23% (3.41 × 10⁴ t) of NO_x and 4.23% (0.32 × 10⁴ t) of PM_2.5 emission by the thermal power sector. The total economic co-benefits of wind power accounted for 0.46% (1.38 billion 2009US$) of the GDP of Xinjiang during 2006–2010.     

Locating solar and wind parks in South-Eastern Nigeria for maximum population coverage: A multi-step approach

Power outages in the most populous country in the continent of Africa, Nigeria, is one issue that has woefully defied almost all known hypotheses for centuries, as enormous investments over the years have provided no palpable result. Considering that electricity plays a vital role in modern society, the electrical power outage has become a major impediment for Nigeria's development. Introduction of Solar Parks (SPs) as well as Solar and Wind-Assisted Parks (SWAPs) (i.e., parks that generate both solar and wind energy) will be a robust and environmentally friendly way of generating electricity.The goal of this research is to develop a multi-step approach - including mathematical programming - to design a capacitated network of SPs and SWAPs in South-Eastern Nigeria, taking into account geographical and demographical characteristics. Meteorological data will also be taken into consideration for preferred wind power generation. To test and validate our approach, we select as case study the state of Anambra, since this is the first state in Nigeria to embrace structural planning for its cities. Moreover, Anambra is currently depending on neighboring states for its electricity supply. We design a capacitated energy network which is powerful enough to cover almost the entire energy requirement of Anambra. The density of the network is such that the majority of households are within reasonable distance (at most 30 km) from the nearest energy park. This way the state will be self-supporting energy-wise in a sustainable way.     

Political,economic and environmental impacts of biomass-based hydrogen

The purpose of this study is to assess the political, economic and environmental impacts of producing hydrogen from biomass. Hydrogen is a promising renewable fuel for transportation and domestic applications. Hydrogen is a secondary form of energy that has to be manufactured like electricity. The promise of hydrogen as an energy carrier that can provide pollution-free, carbon-free power and fuels for buildings, industry, and transport makes it a potentially critical player in our energy future. Currently, most hydrogen is derived from non-renewable resources by steam reforming in which fossil fuels, primarily natural gas, but could in principle be generated from renewable resources such as biomass by gasification. Hydrogen production from fossil fuels is not renewable and produces at least the same amount of CO₂ as the direct combustion of the fossil fuel. The production of hydrogen from biomass has several advantages compared to that of fossil fuels. The major problem in utilization of hydrogen gas as a fuel is its unavailability in nature and the need for inexpensive production methods. Hydrogen production using steam reforming methane is the most economical method among the current commercial processes. These processes use non-renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen and are not sustainable. It is believed that in the future biomass can become an important sustainable source of hydrogen. Several studies have shown that the cost of producing hydrogen from biomass is strongly dependent on the cost of the feedstock. Biomass, in particular, could be a low-cost option for some countries. Therefore, a cost-effective energy-production process could be achieved in which agricultural wastes and various other biomasses are recycled to produce hydrogen economically. Policy interest in moving towards a hydrogen-based economy is rising, largely because converting hydrogen into useable energy can be more efficient than fossil fuels and has the virtue of only producing water as the by-product of the process. Achieving large-scale changes to develop a sustained hydrogen economy requires a large amount of planning and cooperation at national and international alike levels.