Multiaxial creep–fatigue rules

Within the UK, a comprehensive procedure, called R5, is used to assess the high temperature response of structures. One part of R5 deals with creep–fatigue initiation, and in this paper we describe developments in this part of R5 to cover multiaxial stress states.To assess creep–fatigue, damage is written as the linear sum of fatigue and creep components. Fatigue is assessed using Miner's law with the total endurance split into initiation and growth cycles. Initiation is assessed by entering the curve of initiation cycles vs. strain range using a Tresca equivalent strain range. Growth is assessed by entering the curve of growth cycles vs. strain range using a Rankine equivalent strain range. The number of allowable cycles is obtained by summing the initiation and growth cycles. In this way the problem of defining an equivalent strain range applicable over a range of endurance is avoided.Creep damage is calculated using ductility exhaustion methods. In this paper we address two aspects: first, the effect of multiaxial stress on creep ductility; secondly, the nature of stress relaxation and, hence, accumulated creep strain in multiaxial stress fields.     

Experimental and modeling results of creep–fatigue life of Inconel 617 and Haynes 230 at 850 °C

Creep–fatigue testing of Ni-based superalloy Inconel 617 and Haynes 230 were conducted in the air at 850 °C. Tests were performed with fully reversed axial strain control at a total strain range of 0.5%, 1.0% or 1.5% and hold time at maximum tensile strain for 3, 10 or 30 min. In addition, two creep–fatigue life prediction methods, i.e. linear damage summation and frequency-modified tensile hysteresis energy modeling, were evaluated and compared with experimental results. Under all creep–fatigue tests, Haynes 230 performed better than Inconel 617. Compared to the low cycle fatigue life, the cycles to failure for both materials decreased under creep–fatigue test conditions. Longer hold time at maximum tensile strain would cause a further reduction in both material creep–fatigue life. The linear damage summation could predict the creep–fatigue life of Inconel 617 for limited test conditions, but considerably underestimated the creep–fatigue life of Haynes 230. In contrast, frequency-modified tensile hysteresis energy modeling showed promising creep–fatigue life prediction results for both materials.     

Creep failure time of 20% cold-worked type 316 stainless steel

The Robinson failure criterion is examined for its accuracy to predict the creep failure time of 20% cold-worked type 316 stainless steel under uniaxial and multiaxial stresses. Observed changes of slope in the log-log plots of maximum tensile stress versus isothermal rupture life are neglected, and large errors in prediction of creep failure time are found. A failure criterion that best explains the experimental behavior of 20% cold-worked type 316 stainless steel in uniaxial and multiaxial creep conditions is developed by incorporating the effective stress responsible for crack initiation and the maximum tensile stress responsible for crack propagation into the creep failure time equation.     

AL6XN超级奥氏体钢的高温蠕变及疲劳行为研究

研究了AL6XN超级奥氏体钢在650～750℃和120～220MPa应力水平下的高温蠕变特性,以及300和600℃不同恒应变幅值条件下的疲劳特性。结果表明,AL6XN具有优越的高温蠕变抗力,其蠕变激活能Q为327kJ/mol,蠕变应力指数为5.23。结合变形微结构观察结果表明,AL6XN的蠕变机制为位错攀移和滑移机制。在一定应变量下,AL6XN在600℃时疲劳试验的应力水平高于300℃的应力水平,同时随着应变量的增加和温度的升高,其疲劳寿命显著降低;600℃疲劳试验后仅形成位错缠结,疲劳裂纹扩展断口存在典型的疲劳辉纹,无明显二次裂纹。以上结果表明,AL6XN疲劳裂纹扩展行为与其动态应变时效有关。     

Development of fatigue life criteria for experimental fusion reactor first-wall structures

An approach to the rational design of fusion reactor first-wall structures against fatigue crack growth is proposed. The approach is motivated by microstructural observations of fatigue crack growth enhancement in unirradiated materials due to volumetric damage ahead of a propagating crack. Examples are cited that illustrate the effect of mean stress on void nucleation and coalescence, which represent the dominant form of volumetric damage at low temperature, and of grain boundary sliding and creep cavitation, which are the dominant volumetric damage mechanisms at high temperature. The analogy is then drawn between these forms of fatigue crack growth enhancement and those promoted by irradiation exposure in the fusion reactor environment, such as helium embrittlement and atomic displacement. An enhanced strain range is suggested as a macroscopic measure of the reduction in fatigue life due to the higher fatigue crack growth rates. The enhanced strain range permits a separation of volumetric and cyclic effects, and assists in the assignment of rational design factors to each effect. A series of experiments are outlined which should provide the numerical values of the parameters for the enhanced strain range.     

Advances in the analysis of prestressed concrete pressure vessels

The paper describes recent developments in the structural analysis of prestressed concrete pressure vessels with particular reference to work carried out by the Central Electricity Generating Board's Berkeley Nuclear Laboratories.

Since the first concrete pressure vessels were designed, considerable advances have been made in the fields of elastic and thermal analysis. The paper shows typical applications of the finite element method to concrete vessels, and discusses the correlation obtained with both site and experimental measurements.

Creep in concrete has been shown to be of importance due to the stress reversals which can occur on cooling. Correlations are shown between strain predictions and site measurements over the first five years of the life of the Oldbury vessels. The time increment type of creep analysis is shown to be valuable in the examination of detail problems. For example, the effect of standpipe reinforcement on the creep behaviour of a top cap has been assessed. Such methods are however, expensive in computer time for the examination of a full non symmetrical vessel geometry. The paper shows how viscoelastic collocation, and other techniques can be used to study creep behaviour with a minimum of computation.

Finally, some criterion is required for assessment of the multiaxial stress states calculated by these advanced computer methods. A simple graphical method is shown, based on experimental results, which allows the rapid assessment of the acceptability of a multiaxial compressive stress state in concrete.     

Experimental study on uniaxial and nonproportionally multiaxial ratcheting of SS304 stainless steel at room and high temperatures

An experimental study was achieved for the cyclic properties of SS304 stainless steel subjected to uniaxial strain-controlled, uniaxial and nonproportionally multiaxial stress-controlled cyclic loading at room and high temperatures. The effects of cyclic strain amplitude, mean strain, temperature and their histories on the cyclic deformation behavior of the material were investigated under the uniaxial strain-controlled cyclic loading. The uniaxial and nonproportionally multiaxial ratcheting was researched under the asymmetrical stress-controlled cyclic loading with variable stress amplitudes, mean stresses, loading paths and their histories at room and high temperatures. It is shown that the uniaxial cyclic properties under strain-controlled cyclic loading and the ratcheting under asymmetric uniaxial and nonproportionally multiaxial stress-controlled cyclic loading depend not only on the current temperature and loading state, but also greatly on the previous loading history and the shape of loading path. The material presents much greater cyclic hardening and less ratcheting in the range of 400–600 °C than at room temperature, due to the strong dynamic strain aging taken place in this temperature range. Some significant results were obtained for the constitutive modeling of cyclic plastic deformation such as ratcheting.     

Low cycle fatigue properties of CLAM steel at room temperature

The low cycle fatigue (LCF) properties and the fracture behavior of China Low Activation Martensitic (CLAM) steel have been studied over a range of total strain amplitudes from 0.2 to 2.0%. The specimens were cycled using tension-compression loading under total strain amplitude control. The CLAM steel displayed initial hardening followed by continuous softening to failure at room temperature in air. The relationship between strain and fatigue life was predicted using the parameters obtained from fatigue test. The factors effecting on low cycle fatigue of CLAM steel consisted of initial state of matrix dislocation arrangement, magnitude of cyclic stress, magnitude of total strain amplitude and microstructure. The potential mechanisms controlling the stress response, cyclic strain resistance and low cycle fatigue life have been evaluated.     

304不锈钢在单轴应变棘轮变形下的随动硬化实验研究

对304不锈钢在室温下进行了单轴应变控制下的应变棘轮变形与失效以及低周疲劳试验研究,对材料在循环过程中材料的硬化行为进行了系统的揭示。在对称应变循环下,研究了不同应变幅值下弹性区尺寸和背应力演化规律;在给定工程应变幅值和循环棘轮应变增量组合的应变棘轮变形下进行了弹性区尺寸和背应力演化研究。观察到了各向同性硬化和随动硬化演化对加载历史的依赖性。     

Transferability of time-dependent data and constitutive equations to cases of multiaxial load

The transferability of materials data obtained in uniaxial tests to multiaxial load conditions depends on the nature of the multiaxial load and the type of semi-finished product. Whereas in the stationary creep range there is good agreement in the deformation behaviour of rod and tube material, tubes with slight wall thicknesses display considerable strengthening in the primary creep range. Lifetime prediction on the basis of the deviatoric stress alone is not sufficient. The time course of the largest elongation component must rather be considered in determining the specimen life.     

Creep-fatigue evaluation of normalized and tempered modified 9Cr---1Mo

Creep-fatigue is a fatal failure mode of the high temperature structural materials of liquid metal fast breeder reactors (LMFBRs). In this report, two important issues are discussed for creep-fatigue evaluation of normalized and tempered modified 9Cr---1Mo (modified 9Cr---1Mo(NT)) steel which is a promising structural material for the steam generator of large-scale LMFBRs in Japan. Several evaluation methods based on the ductility exhaustion concept are discussed for the prediction of tension strain hold creep-fatigue damage of this material. A time-fraction type of linear damage summation concept based on a new ductility exhaustion theory is proposed from the point of view of its appropriate conservatism for time extrapolation and its simplicity.Also, a life reduction mechanism of low cycle fatigue with strain hold at the compression side is discussed, based on the data observed by a scanning type electron microscope. Creep damage or the tension mean stress caused by compression strain hold hardly reduce the low cycle fatigue life of this material. A new concept based on the location of oxidation on the test specimen surface can explain the reduction in low cycle fatigue life of modified 9Cr-1Mo(NT) steel.     

Effect of nonproportional loading on creep-fatigue properties of 304 stainless steel at low strain ranges near the elastic region

The effect of nonproportional strain path on fatigue/creep-fatigue properties was investigated with 304 stainless steel at 550°C under strain controlled biaxial conditions. The fatigue/creep-fatigue life reduction due to nonproportional strain path occurred even at the lowest strain range investigated, that is, 0.2% for fatigue loading and 0.3% for creep-fatigue loading. The Mises-type path-dependent equivalent strain range was employed in order to evaluate the fatigue/creep-fatigue strength under nonproportional loading conditions. Stress relaxation behavior under nonproportional loading was examined. It was shown that stress relaxes proportionally toward the origin of stress plane even under nonproportional loading. Fatigue damage and creep damage were calculated based on the linear damage summation rule. Life prediction was shown to be possible within an accuracy of a factor of about 2 for nonproportional loading along with other waveforms including pure axial loading, pure torsional loading and combined proportional loading.     

Fracture mechanics issues for irradiated blanket structures

This paper reviews some of the factors that will affect fracture behavior of fusion reactor structures and summarizes some component life predictions based on linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis. The review includes discussion of the environments to which the components will be subjected, the response of materials to these environments, the time dependent nature of the structural response, and the fracture related failure mechanisms.Radiation environments and complex loading conditions in a fusion reactor cause a variety of material phenomena. These phenomena include irradiation swelling and creep, strength changes due to matrix hardening, helium embrittlement, and surface effects such as sputtering and blistering.The interaction of thermal creep, irradiation creep, and swelling results in complex time, temperature, and neutron fluence dependent stress histories in first wall and blanket structures. These effects reduce compressive thermal stresses during the burn portion of a reactor operating cycle and result in residual tensile stress during the non-burn portion of the cycle. The cyclic nature of these stresses, particularly in a tokamak reactor, and the presence of undetected flaws provide a basis for the application of fracture mechanics. Linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis techniques have been applied to predict component life for several conceptual tokamak fusion reactor designs. These analyses show that the structural life may be limited by growth of initial flaws to a coolant leakage. Results indicate that for neutron wall loadings below 2 to 3 Mw/m², life is likely to be controlled by stresses during the burn period and, at higher wall loadings, by residual stresses during the non-burn period.Fracture toughness properties tend to be reduced by irradiation. Therefore, brittle fracture will be a potentially critical failure mode. Fatigue crack growth and fracture characteristics of the design will affect the operating mode of a reactor and influence the performance of different types of reactors. Tests are currently planned to develop material crack growth and fracture toughness data [1] for candidate alloys because these properties have been shown to be important.     

应变幅对国产锻造奥氏体不锈钢环境疲劳寿命影响的试验研究

为验证模拟压水堆核电站冷却剂服役环境对国产锻造主管道用奥氏体不锈钢疲劳寿命的影响,采用高温高压循环水疲劳测试系统对从产品锻件取样加工后的标准试样进行了低周疲劳试验,分析了试验数据与美国机械工程师学会(American Society of Mechanical Engineers,ASME)规范平均/设计疲劳曲线的关系,获得了应变幅对奥氏体不锈钢环境疲劳寿命的影响规律,并初步评价了ASME规范设计疲劳曲线和环境疲劳修正系数的适合性。     

P92钢高温低周疲劳的实验研究

由于高的热效率和简单的系统组成,超临界水堆(SCWR)被认为是第四代核反应堆的一种选择。超临界水堆的关键问题之一是核心部件尤其是燃料组件包壳的材料。这些材料在高温下的力学性能、腐蚀和应力腐蚀开裂敏感性以及抗辐射性能等对核电厂的安全运行至关重要。本文对SCWR包壳候选材料的F/M类材料P92钢进行了高温低周疲劳实验研究。实验温度为600和650℃,控制方式为总应变控制,应变范围均为±0.2%～±0.6%。实验结果表明,在两种温度下,P92钢均为循环软化材料,但未出现循环稳定现象。由于温度升高,塑性增强,P92钢在650℃下的宏观裂纹出现周次比率随应变范围的增加,下降比较平缓,且650℃下的失效寿命显著高于600℃下的失效寿命。并得到了两种温度下的稳定循环应力-塑性应变的关系以及循环失效寿命和应变的关系。     

Cyclic softening as a parameter for prediction of remnant creep rupture life of a Indian reduced activation ferritic–martensitic (IN-RAFM) steel subjected to fatigue exposures

Sequential fatigue-creep tests were conducted on Indian reduced activation ferritic–martensitic steel at 823 K leading to sharp decrease in residual creep life with increase in prior fatigue exposures. Extensive recovery of martensitic-lath structure taking place during fatigue deformation, manifested as cyclic softening in the cyclic stress response, shortens the residual creep life. Based on the experimental results, cyclic softening occurring during fatigue stage can be correlated with residual creep life, evolving in an empirical model which predicts residual creep life as a function of cyclic softening. Predicted creep lives for specimens pre-cycled at various strain amplitudes are explained on the basis of mechanism of cyclic softening.     

Uncertainties of creep model in stress analysis and life prediction of graphite component

The irradiation-induced creep is a key factor in stress analysis and life prediction of nuclear graphite in high temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTRs). Numerous creep models have been established and good agreements have been observed with uni-axial creep experiments. However, the effect of creep strain ratio has not been fully addressed, and the primary creep strain is considered in some cases less important in comparison with the secondary one. These uncertainties in creep model might result in large discrepancies in the evaluation of stresses and service lives of graphite components. In this paper, the variation of creep strain ratio and the impact of the primary creep strain are studied numerically and the corresponding discrepancies in stresses and life prediction of graphite components in HTRs are discussed. Two implicit formulations of the incremental finite element solution for the parameter variations of creep models are presented and integrated into a finite element code developed by INET. The numerical results show that both increase of the creep strain ratio and absence of the primary creep strain will lead to an increase of stress levels and decrease of service life dramatically, suggesting that uncertainties of creep models have to be taken into account in the design of graphite components in HTRs.     

Low cycle fatigue of Eurofer 97

We have investigated the low cycle fatigue and creep-fatigue properties of Eurofer 97 and observed the associated microstructural changes. The as received structure is composed of equiaxed subgrains and a few martensite laths with a high dislocation density. Fatigue tests have been carried out in air or in high vacuum, from room temperature to 550 °C, under total strain control. It has been found that the influence of the test temperature on the fatigue endurance is not significant. The softening behaviour as a function of the imposed strain amplitude and temperature has been analysed in detail. The softening rate is independent of the imposed strain but strongly enhanced at the highest test temperature. Creep-fatigue tests were run, imposing a 500 s dwell at the maximum tensile strain of the loading cycle, at a total strain range of 0.5%, 0.8% and 1.4%, and at 150, 300 and 550 °C. The influence of the hold time is important only at the highest test temperature, under low applied strains. It was found that at the beginning of life, at the highest temperature, the softening rate with hold times is much stronger as compared to the softening rate without hold times. The amount of stress relaxed during the dwell is independent of the applied strain, at the end of life. The effect of fatigue with and without hold times up to medium temperatures on the microstructure was to lower the dislocation density and to decompose the laths and large grains into a homogeneous structure of submicron grains. At the highest test temperature, an increase of the subgrain size and carbide coarsening were observed.