Multiple confidence estimates as indices of eyewitness memory.

Eyewitness identification decisions are vulnerable to various influences on witnesses' decision criteria that contribute to false identifications of innocent suspects and failures to choose perpetrators. An alternative procedure using confidence estimates to assess the degree of match between novel and previously viewed faces was investigated. Classification algorithms were applied to participants' confidence data to determine when a confidence value or pattern of confidence values indicated a positive response. Experiment 1 compared confidence group classification accuracy with a binary decision control group's accuracy on a standard old-new face recognition task and found superior accuracy for the confidence group for target-absent trials but not for target-present trials. Experiment 2 used a face mini-lineup task and found reduced target-present accuracy offset by large gains in target-absent accuracy. Using a standard lineup paradigm, Experiments 3 and 4 also found improved classification accuracy for target-absent lineups and, with a more sophisticated algorithm, for target-present lineups. This demonstrates the accessibility of evidence for recognition memory decisions and points to a more sensitive index of memory quality than is afforded by binary decisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of Postidentification Feedback on Eyewitness Identification and Nonidentification Confidence.

Two experiments investigated new dimensions of the effect of confirming feedback on eyewitness identification confidence using target-absent and target-present lineups and (previously unused) unbiased witness instructions (i.e., "offender not present" option highlighted). In Experiment 1, participants viewed a crime video and were later asked to try to identify the thief from an 8-person target-absent photo array. Feedback inflated witness confidence for both mistaken identifications and correct lineup rejections. With target-present lineups in Experiment 2, feedback inflated confidence for correct and mistaken identifications and lineup rejections. Although feedback had no influence on the confidence-accuracy correlation, it produced clear overconfidence. Confidence inflation varied with the confidence measure reference point (i.e., retrospective vs. current confidence) and identification response latency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential vs. Simultaneous Lineups: A Review of Methods, Data, and Theory.

A considerable amount of empirical research has been conducted on ways to improve the eyewitness identification process, with emphasis on the use of lineups. Public policy changes are currently underway with respect to lineup procedures: Sequential lineups are being recommended to police as the best practice. This may be premature because the conditions under which sequential lineups are superior to simultaneous lineups are not well understood given the current literature: Many studies are reported with insufficient detail needed to judge the adequacy of the research design, new data show that the sequential superiority effect may vary as a function of study methodology, theoretical assumptions have not been adequately tested, and important comparisons that may rule out the ostensible superiority of the sequential lineup have not been studied. This review summarizes the literature, presents new data, and identifies the need for further empirical work before appropriately grounded recommendations as to the superiority of sequential lineups can be made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eyewitness recall: Regulation of grain size and the role of confidence.

Eyewitness testimony plays a critical role in Western legal systems. Three experiments extended M. Goldsmith, A. Koriat, and A. Weinberg-Eliezer's (2002) framework of the regulation of grain size (precision vs. coarseness) of memory reports to eyewitness memory. In 2 experiments, the grain size of responses had a large impact on memory accuracy. Further, participants achieved a compromise between the accuracy and informativeness of their testimony by volunteering precise answers only when likely to be correct. The level of detail reported was strongly, positively related to confidence in the accuracy of the response. This highlights the importance of considering the level of detail, not just the accuracy, of eyewitness testimony. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple Independent Identification Decisions: A Method of Calibrating Eyewitness Identifications.

Two experiments (N = 147 and N = 90) explored the use of multiple independent lineups to identify a target seen live. In Experiment 1, simultaneous face, body, and sequential voice lineups were used. In Experiment 2, sequential face, body, voice, and clothing lineups were used. Both studies demonstrated that multiple identifications (by the same witness) from independent lineups of different features are highly diagnostic of suspect guilt (G. L. Wells & R. C. L. Lindsay, 1980). The number of suspect and foil selections from multiple independent lineups provides a powerful method of calibrating the accuracy of eyewitness identification. Implications for use of current methods are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cue-availability paradigm: The effects of cigarette availability on cue reactivity in smokers.

Researchers have hypothesized that drug availability should influence addicts' reactions to drug-related stimuli. but manipulation of the extent to which drug users have access to their drugs following a session of exposure to drug cues have not produced strong availability effects. This study used within-session manipulations of drug availability to examine cigarette smokers' reactions to smoking cues. Smokers (N?=?60) were exposed to 48 trials of either a lit cigarette or a class of water while they were informed of the probability (0%, 50%, or 100%) that they would be able to consume the cue on each trial. Results from measures of craving, mood, skin conductance, and latency to access the cues indicated that the trial-by-trial manipulation of drug availability had a pronounced impact on reactivity to cigarette cues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Capture of attention in selective frequency listening.

Four signal-detection experiments demonstrated robust stimulus-driven, or exogenous, attentional processes in selective frequency listening. Detection of just-above-threshold signal tones was consistently better when the signal matched the frequency of an uninformative cue tone, even with relatively long cue-signal delays (Experiment 1) or when as few as 1 in 8 signals were at the cued frequency (Experiment 2). Experiments 3 and 4 compared performance with informative and uninformative cues. The involvement of intentional, or endogenous, processes was found to only slightly increase the size of the cuing effect beyond that evident with solely exogenous processes, although the attention band, a measure of how narrowly attention is focused, was found to be wider when cues were informative. The implications for models of auditory attention are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of eyewitness identification evidence in felony case dispositions.

We addressed the question of whether felony case dispositions are associated with eyewitness identification evidence. Toward this end, 725 felony cases (rape, robbery, and assault) were randomly sampled from the archives of a District Attorney's Office in a large south-western city in the United States. A positive identification was present more often in accepted compared to rejected cases, although the association was significant in acquaintance cases (i.e., cases in which one or more of the eyewitnesses was familiar with the defendant), not stranger cases. Additionally, suspect and crime incident factors were associated with case issuing outcomes to a larger extent than eyewitness identification evidence. Analyses further indicated that eyewitness identification evidence was stronger in prosecuted compared to rejected cases in which eyewitness testimony was the sole evidence against the defendant. Neither the presence of multiple identifications nor nonidentifications of the suspect varied across issuing outcomes. The findings are discussed in relation to additional research that is needed at the police and prosecution stages to advance public policy development with respect to the evaluation of eyewitness identification evidence by prosecutors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subjective confidence in perceptual judgments: A test of the self-consistency model.

Two questions about subjective confidence in perceptual judgments are examined: the bases for these judgments and the reasons for their accuracy. Confidence in perceptual judgments has been claimed to rest on qualitatively different processes than confidence in memory tasks. However, predictions from a self-consistency model (SCM), which had been confirmed for general-information questions (Koriat, 2010) and social attitudes (Koriat & Adiv, 2010), are shown to hold true also for perceptual judgments. In SCM, confidence is modeled by the procedure for assessment of statistical level of confidence: For a 2-alternative, forced-choice item, confidence is based on the consistency with which the choice is favored across a sample of representations of the item, and acts as a monitor of the likelihood that a new sample will yield the same choice. Assuming that these representations are drawn from commonly shared populations of representations associated with each item, predictions regarding the basis of confidence were confirmed by results concerning the functions relating confidence and choice latency to interparticipant consensus and to intraparticipant consistency for majority and minority choices. With regard to the confidence-accuracy (C/A) relationship, the consensuality principle, documented for general-knowledge tasks (Koriat, 2008a), was replicated for perceptual judgments: Confidence correlated with the consensuality of the choice rather than with its correctness, suggesting that the C/A correlation is due to the relationship between confidence and self-consistency and is positive only as long as the correct choices are the consistently made choices. SCM provides a general model for the basis and accuracy of confidence judgments across different domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A nonlinear mixed model framework for item response theory.

Mixed models take the dependency between observations based on the same cluster into account by introducing 1 or more random effects. Common item response theory (IRT) models introduce latent person variables to model the dependence between responses of the same participant. Assuming a distribution for the latent variables, these IRT models are formally equivalent with nonlinear mixed models. It is shown how a variety of IRT models can be formulated as particular instances of nonlinear mixed models. The unifying framework offers the advantage that relations between different IRT models become explicit and that it is rather straightforward to see how existing IRT models can be adapted and extended. The approach is illustrated with a self-report study on anger. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The future of psychotherapy integration: A roundtable.

This article provides a compilation of forecasts on the future of psychotherapy integration from 22 prominent figures in the integration movement. Contributors succinctly addressed questions on desirable practice, research, theoretical, and training directions for the movement. Contributors also responded to the question, What would you like the field of psychotherapy integration to look like in 25 years? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective memory across adolescence: The effects of age and cue focality.

The present study examined the role of controlled attention in age differences in event-based prospective memory performance across adolescence. The researchers tested whether presenting the prospective memory cue in or out of focal awareness of the ongoing task (resulting in low versus high demands for controlled attention, respectively) might affect age-related prospective memory performance. In total, 119 Chinese participants ages 13 to 20 took part in this study (60 adolescents: age M = 13.26 years, SD = 0.50; 23 boys; 59 young adults: age M = 19.70 years, SD = 0.87; 19 men). Findings demonstrated a significant interaction, F(1, 114) = 6.41, p     

Two-stage dynamic signal detection: A theory of choice, decision time, and confidence: Erratum.

Reports an error in Two-stage dynamic signal detection: A theory of choice, decision time, and confidence by Timothy J. Pleskac and Jerome R. Busemeyer (Psychological Review, 2010[Jul], Vol 117[3], 864-901). The name of the philosopher Charles Peirce was misspelled throughout as Charles Pierce. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-14834-006.) The 3 most often-used performance measures in the cognitive and decision sciences are choice, response or decision time, and confidence. We develop a random walk/diffusion theory—2-stage dynamic signal detection (2DSD) theory—that accounts for all 3 measures using a common underlying process. The model uses a drift diffusion process to account for choice and decision time. To estimate confidence, we assume that evidence continues to accumulate after the choice. Judges then interrupt the process to categorize the accumulated evidence into a confidence rating. The model explains all known interrelationships between the 3 indices of performance. Furthermore, the model also accounts for the distributions of each variable in both a perceptual and general knowledge task. The dynamic nature of the model also reveals the moderating effects of time pressure on the accuracy of choice and confidence. Finally, the model specifies the optimal solution for giving the fastest choice and confidence rating for a given level of choice and confidence accuracy. Judges are found to act in a manner consistent with the optimal solution when making confidence judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The human startle reflex and alcohol cue reactivity: Effects of early versus late abstinence.

This study investigated the human eyeblink startle reflex as a measure of alcohol cue reactivity. Alcohol-dependent participants early (n?=?36) and late (n?=?34) in abstinence received presentations of alcohol and water cues. Consistent with previous research, greater salivation and higher ratings of urge to drink occurred in response to the alcohol cues. Differential salivary and urge responding to alcohol versus water cues did not vary as a function of abstinence duration. Of special interest was the finding that startle response magnitudes were relatively elevated to alcohol cues, but only in individuals early in abstinence. Affective ratings of alcohol cues suggested that alcohol cues were perceived as aversive. Methodological and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Judgeability in person perception: The confidence of leaders.

Leaders are often expected to evaluate their team workers. In the present study, the authors investigated the hypothesis that leaders express social judgments with more confidence than subordinates. Leadership is assumed to play the role of a metainformational cue leading people to feel entitled to judge. In Study 1, supervisors in a Portuguese firm expressed their evaluations of colleagues and superiors. In Study 2, leadership was attributed on the basis of alleged competence. In Study 3, leadership was explicitly attributed on a random basis. The results of the 3 studies support the hypothesis and are discussed within the framework of social judgeability theory (J. P. Leyens, V. Y. Yzerbyt, & G. Schadron, 1992, 1994). The confidence of leaders may become a norm that is constructed by others. Practical implications are discussed. To the same extent that leadership often resides in the eyes of followers, confidence may originate in the mind of leaders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attachment theory and psychotherapy integration: An introduction and review of the literature.

As an introduction to the special issue on attachment theory as a foundation for psychotherapy integration, this article will review the uses to which the theory has been employed by integrative theorists and clinicians during the past four decades. Reasons that this theory has been so influentially within psychotherapy integration are discussed, as are some of the models that are explicitly based on attachment theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Efficacy of moderation-oriented cue exposure for problem drinkers: A randomized controlled trial.

The effectiveness of cue exposure following a priming dose was compared with cognitive-behavioral intervention in a community sample of problem drinkers. Participants were randomly associated to 1 of the 2 conditions and received a mean of 5.84 (SD=2.69) sessions. A psychologist blind to treatment condition conducted an 8-month follow-up. Compared with pretreatment levels, significant decreased in alcohol consumption were evidence posttreatment and maintained at follow-up for both groups. Reductions in severity of dependence, impaired control, and alcohol-related problems were also evidence for both groups at follow-up. No differences in outcome associated with initial severity of alcohol dependence were apparent. The results raise the issue of the appropriateness of reserving a goal of controlled drinking for those with relatively mild alcohol problems and low alcohol dependence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Short cue presentations encourage advance task preparation: A recipe to diminish the residual switch cost.

In the task-switching literature, it has frequently been demonstrated that although advance task preparation reduces the switch cost, it never really eliminates the switch cost. This remaining residual switch cost received much attention, and it has been argued that advance preparation is restricted in nature. In the present study, the role of task-cue presentation in the establishment of the residual switch cost was investigated. In 4 experiments, the cue was removed during the preparation interval, and it was hypothesized that this would encourage participants to complete advance task preparation. The results of all 4 experiments provided support for this hypothesis: When the cue was presented for a short time and then removed, the residual switch cost completely disappeared. This was found for different cue types. Furthermore, Experiment 3 demonstrated that it was not the presence of the cue itself but merely differences in advance task preparation that caused the effects. This suggests that advance task preparation is not as restricted in nature as previously assumed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual feature integration theory: Past, present, and future.

Visual feature integration theory was one of the most influential theories of visual information processing in the last quarter of the 20th century. This article provides an exposition of the theory and a review of the associated data. In the past much emphasis has been placed on how the theory explains performance in various visual search tasks. The relevant literature is discussed and alternative accounts are described. Amendments to the theory are also set out. Many other issues concerning internal processes and representations implicated by the theory are reviewed. The article closes with a synopsis of what has been learned from consideration of the theory, and it is concluded that some of the issues may remain intractable unless appropriate neuroscientific investigations are carried out. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)