Use of analytical information concerning task requirements to increase the effectiveness of skill training.

How can complex tasks in training be related to student ability in such a way that time is an improved application of theory to practice? 324 university students, divided into 3 groups, were engaged in learning how to stay on a target appearing on a radar picture tube. In this tracking they manipulated aircraft type controls. The experimental group of 60 students was given a usual type of training program, plus "standard instructions derived from the analysis of task requirements." This group showed superiority throughout the course of practice. "… changes in learning occurred… rather than just changes in performance." From Psyc Abstracts 36:05:5LE95P. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental rotation: Cross-task training and generalization.

It is well established that performance on standard mental rotation tasks improves with training (Peters et al., 1995), but thus far there is little consensus regarding the degree of transfer to other tasks which also involve mental rotation. In Experiment 1, we assessed the effect of mental rotation training on participants' Mental Rotation Test (MRT) scores. Twenty-eight participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a “One-Day Training,” “Spaced Training,” or “No Training” group. Participants who received training achieved higher scores on the MRT, an advantage that was still evident after 1 week. Distribution of training did not affect performance. Experiment 2 assessed generalization of mental rotation training to a more complex mental rotation task, laparoscopic surgery. Laparoscopic surgical skills were assessed using Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery (FLS) tasks. Thirty-four participants were randomly assigned to a “Full Mental Rotation Training, MRT and FLS,” “MRT and FLS,” or “FLS-only” group. MRT results from Experiment 1 were replicated and mental rotation training was found to elicit higher scores on the MRT. Further, mental rotation training was found to generalize to certain laparoscopic surgical tasks. Participants who obtained mental rotation training performed significantly better on mental-rotation dependent surgical tasks than participants who did not receive training. Therefore, surgical training programs can use simple computer or paper-based mental rotation training instead of more expensive materials to enhance certain aspects of surgical performance of trainees. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The efficacy of problem-solving communication training alone, behavior management training alone, and their combination for parent–adolescent conflict in teenagers with ADHD and ODD.

Two family therapies were compared using teens with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Ninety-seven families were assigned to either 18 sessions of problem-solving communication training (PSCT) alone or behavior management training (BMT) for 9 sessions followed by PSCT for 9 sessions (BMT/PSCT). Both treatments demonstrated significant improvement in ratings of parent-teen conflicts at the midpoint but did not differ. By posttreatment, both produced improvement on ratings and observations but did not differ. Significantly more families dropped out of PSCT alone than out of BMT/PSCT. At most, 23% of families showed reliable change either by midpoint or by posttreatment, with no differences between therapies. Yet 31–70% of families were normalized. Group-level change and normalization rates support treatment efficacy, whereas indices of reliable change are less impressive. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facilitating acquisition and transfer of a continuous motor task in healthy older adults and patients with Alzheimer's disease.

This study examined the acquisition and transfer of a fine motor skill, namely the rotary pursuit, in 99 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and 100 normal controls (NCs). To identify optimal learning strategies, the authors had participants practice the rotary pursuit under constant, blocked, random, or no training conditions. Transfer was assessed using speeds that were different from those practiced during acquisition. AD patients and NCs receiving constant practice outperformed their peers in the blocked and random conditions during acquisition. Whereas all 3 types of practice facilitated transfer in the NCs, AD patients only benefited from constant practice. The inability of the AD patients to benefit from variable practice suggests that these individuals may have difficulty accessing and/or forming motor schemas. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When perception is more than reality: The effects of perceived versus actual resource depletion on self-regulatory behavior.

Considerable research demonstrates that the depletion of self-regulatory resources impairs performance on subsequent tasks that demand these resources. The current research sought to assess the impact of perceived resource depletion on subsequent task performance at both high and low levels of actual depletion. The authors manipulated perceived resource depletion by having participants 1st complete a depleting or nondepleting task before being presented with feedback that did or did not provide a situational attribution for their internal state. Participants then persisted at a problem-solving task (Experiments 1–2), completed an attention-regulation task (Experiment 3), or responded to a persuasive message (Experiment 4). The findings consistently demonstrated that individuals who perceived themselves as less (vs. more) depleted, whether high or low in actual depletion, were more successful at subsequent self-regulation. Thus, perceived regulatory depletion can impact subsequent task performance—and this impact can be independent of one’s actual state of depletion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of error training and individual differences on training outcomes: An attribute-treatment interaction perspective.

The authors examined the effectiveness of error training for trainees with different levels of cognitive ability, openness to experience, or conscientiousness. Participants (N=181) were randomly assigned to control, error-encouragement, or error-avoidance conditions and trained to perform a decision-making simulation. Declarative knowledge, task performance, and self-efficacy were measured posttraining. Findings suggest the effectiveness of error training is dependent on the cognitive ability or dispositional traits of trainees. High cognitive ability or more open individuals benefit more from error-encouragernent training than low cognitive ability or less open individuals. Conscientiousness has a negative effect on self-efficacy when trainees are encouraged to make errors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When does haste make waste? Speed-accuracy tradeoff, skill level, and the tools of the trade.

Novice and skilled golfers took a series of golf putts with a standard putter (Exp. 1) or a distorted funny putter (consisting of an s-shaped and arbitrarily weighted putter shaft; Exp. 2) under instructions to either (a) take as much time as needed to be accurate or to (b) putt as fast as possible while still being accurate. Planning and movement time were measured for each putt. In both experiments, novices produced the typical speed-accuracy trade-off. Going slower, in terms of both the planning and movement components of execution, improved performance. In contrast, skilled golfers benefited from reduced performance time when using the standard putter in Exp. 1 and, specifically, taking less time to plan improved performance. In Exp. 2, skilled golfers improved by going slower when using the funny putter, but only when it was unfamiliar. Thus, skilled performance benefits from speed instructions when wielding highly familiar tools (i.e., the standard putter) is harmed when using new tools (i.e., the funny putter), and benefits again by speed instructions as the new tool becomes familiar. Planning time absorbs these changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Frame-of-reference training effectiveness: Effects of goal orientation and self-efficacy on affective, cognitive, skill-based, and transfer outcomes.

Empirical evidence supporting frame-of-reference (FOR) training as an effective intervention for calibrating raters is convincing. Yet very little is known about who does better or worse in FOR training. We conducted a field study of how motivational factors influence affective, cognitive, and behavioral learning outcomes, as well as near transfer indexed by achieving professional certification. Relying on goal orientation theory, we hypothesized effects for 3 goal orientations: learning, prove performance, and avoid performance. Results were generally supportive across learning outcomes and transfer. Findings further supported a hypothesized interaction between learning self-efficacy and avoid performance goal orientation, such that higher levels of learning self-efficacy mitigated the negative effects of higher performance avoid tendencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When the shoe is on the other foot: A qualitative study of intern-level trainees’ perceived learning from clients.

Twelve trainees (3 men and 9 women) who had recently completed predoctoral internships at a university counseling center were interviewed about what they had learned from clients. Data were analyzed using a consensual qualitative research method. Participants reported learning things about doing therapy, themselves, client dynamics, human nature, the therapy relationship, and the usefulness of supervision. In addition, participants highlighted the importance of consultation and self-reflection to help them recognize what they learned. Implications for practice and research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When HIPAA and FERPA apply to university training clinics.

University training clinics should carefully evaluate whether they are correctly applying HIPAA and FERPA to their clients. Their misapplication may not only violate federal law, but may also violate the ethics code, and cause significant harm to clients. Moreover, their proper use has taken on greater urgency because of several important, recent developments. This article details when HIPAA and FERPA apply to university training clinics and describes their effects on clients, student therapists, and their supervisors. It also makes recommendations for training student therapists about HIPAA and FERPA including when they both apply to a training clinic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Military training and principles of learning.

"If I were faced with the problem of improving training, I should not look for much help from the well-known learning principles like reinforcement, distribution of practice, response familiarity, and so on. I should look instead at the technique of task analysis and at the principles of component task achievement, intratask transfer, and the sequencing of subtask learning to find those ideas of greatest usefulness in the design of effective training." Major sections are: Some Representative Military Tasks, Learning, Principles, Using These Assumptions and Principles in Training Design, What Is Applicable to the Design of Training? and Summary. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Configural response learning: The acquisition of a nonpredictive motor skill.

This study examined the representational nature of configural response learning using a task that required simultaneous keypresses with 2 or 3 fingers, similar to the production of chords on the piano. If the benefits of learning are related to the retrieval of individual stimulus-response mappings, performance should depend on the frequencies of the individual responses forming each chord. Alternatively, learning may involve the encoding of configural information concerning the relationship between the chord elements. In Experiment 1, training was restricted to a subset of the 120 possible 3-element chords. Probe blocks included the practiced chords, chords composed of novel configurations of practiced elements (reconfigured), and chords that contained a new element (new). Practiced chords were performed faster than reconfigured chords, indicating learning involves the encoding of configural information. Experiment 2 showed that learning was not restricted to configurations within each hand. Experiments 3 and 4 demonstrated that learning was largely response based. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The utility of interdisciplinary training and service: Psychology training on a psychiatry consultation-liaison service.

Increasing numbers of psychologists work in medical settings because of the growing acceptance of a biopsychosocial approach to illness. Do training programs prepare sufficient numbers of graduates to function effectively in medical settings? The authors describe the process of adding an inpatient medical-surgical consultation-liaison (C-L) service to a psychology internship's training rotations, the learning objectives used, and issues in the preparation of trainees for work in medical settings. Psychology trainees added significant capacity to the C-L service. These data may help facilitate the development of C-L training experiences for other programs (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship of typographic arrangement to the learning of technical training material.

"… two newly developed methods of typographic arrangement, square span and spaced unit, may possess certain advantages over the usual arrangement. While square span slowed the reader on first encounter, this effect tended to diminish with practice; spaced unit had little effect upon reading speed. The reader found the newer arrangements less acceptable than the more traditional, but this feeling was less marked when the "thought units" in the arrangement were small rather than large. The chief effect upon immediate retention produced by the newer arrangements compared to the older was to provide an increase in test scores for the more able readers. It should be emphasized that the advantages of the newer arrangement are best described as potential, since they interfere with strongly developed reading habits." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Metacognitive control and strategy selection: Deciding to practice retrieval during learning.

Retrieval practice is a potent technique for enhancing learning, but how often do students practice retrieval when they regulate their own learning? In 4 experiments the subjects learned foreign-language items across multiple study and test periods. When items were assigned to be repeatedly tested, repeatedly studied, or removed after they were recalled, repeated retrieval produced powerful effects on learning and retention. However, when subjects were given control over their own learning and could choose to test, study, or remove items, many subjects chose to remove items rather than practice retrieval, leading to poor retention. In addition, when tests were inserted in the learning phase, attempting retrieval improved learning by enhancing subsequent encoding during study. But when students were given control over their learning they did not attempt retrieval as early or as often as they should to promote the best learning. The experiments identify a compelling metacognitive illusion that occurs during self-regulated learning: Once students can recall an item they tend to believe they have “learned” it. This leads students to terminate practice rather than practice retrieval, a strategy choice that ultimately results in poor retention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When learning is just a click away: Does simple user interaction foster deeper understanding of multimedia messages?

In 2 experiments, students received 2 presentations of a narrated animation that explained how lightning forms followed by retention and transfer tests. In Experiment 1, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation before a second presentation of the same material at normal speed (part–whole presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations in the reverse order (whole–part presentation). In Experiment 2, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation across 2 presentations (part–part presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations at normal speed without any learner control (whole–whole presentation). These results are consistent with cognitive load theory and a 2-stage theory of mental model construction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When self-efficacy negatively relates to motivation and performance in a learning context.

Recent reviews of the training literature have advocated directly manipulating self-efficacy in an attempt to improve the motivation of trainees. However, self-regulation theories conceive of motivation as a function of various goal processes, and assert that the effect of self-efficacy should depend on the process involved. Training contexts may evoke planning processes in which self-efficacy might negatively relate to motivation. Yet the typical between-persons studies in the current literature may obscure the effect. To examine this issue, 63 undergraduate students completed a series of questionnaires measuring self-efficacy and motivation before 5 class exams. Self-efficacy was negatively related to motivation and exam performance at the within-person level of analysis, despite a significant positive relation with performance at the between-persons level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfer of team skills as a function of type of training.

5 groups varying in training context (team vs. individual) and skill acquisition (individual, coordination, and communication skills) were compared at transfer on team (coordination of interceptions) and individual (number of interceptions) performance of a simulated radar-controlled aerial intercept task. Individual performance was unaffected by the training variables, but team performance was a positive function of the emphasis on coordination skills during training. When acquisition of coordination skills was held constant, context had no effect on transfer performance. Intrateam communications retarded performance but prohibiting these communications during training did not lessen their disruptive effect at transfer. This inhibitory influence of team communications reflected the verbal transmittal of information irrelevant to the task or more readily obtainable from the radar scopes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of delaying judgments of learning on metacognitive accuracy: A meta-analytic review.

Many studies have examined the accuracy of predictions of future memory performance solicited through judgments of learning (JOLs). Among the most robust findings in this literature is that delaying predictions serves to substantially increase the relative accuracy of JOLs compared with soliciting JOLs immediately after study, a finding termed the delayed JOL effect. The meta-analyses reported in the current study examined the predominant theoretical accounts as well as potential moderators of the delayed JOL effect. The first meta-analysis examined the relative accuracy of delayed compared with immediate JOLs across 4,554 participants (112 effect sizes) through gamma correlations between JOLs and memory accuracy. Those data showed that delaying JOLs leads to robust benefits to relative accuracy (g = 0.93). The second meta-analysis examined memory performance for delayed compared with immediate JOLs across 3,807 participants (98 effect sizes). Those data showed that delayed JOLs result in a modest but reliable benefit for memory performance relative to immediate JOLs (g = 0.08). Findings from these meta-analyses are well accommodated by theories suggesting that delayed JOL accuracy reflects access to more diagnostic information from long-term memory rather than being a by-product of a retrieval opportunity. However, these data also suggest that theories proposing that the delayed JOL effect results from a memorial benefit or the match between the cues available for JOLs and those available at test may also provide viable explanatory mechanisms necessary for a comprehensive account. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributing study effort to data-driven and goal-driven effects: Implications for metacognitive judgments.

In self-paced learning, when the regulation of effort is goal driven (e.g., allocated to different items according to their relative importance), judgments of learning (JOLs) increase with study time. When it is data driven (i.e., determined by the ease of committing the item to memory), JOLs decrease with study time (Koriat, Ma’ayan, & Nussinson, 2006). Because the amount of effort invested in different items is conjointly determined by data-driven and goal-driven regulation, an attribution process must be postulated in which variations in effort are attributed by the learner to data-driven or goal-driven regulation before the implications for metacognitive judgments are determined. To support the reality of this process, the authors asked learners to adopt a facial expression that creates a feeling of effort and induced them to attribute that effort either to data-driven or to goal-driven regulation. This manipulation was found to determine the direction in which experienced effort affected metacognitive judgment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)