The development of interattitudinal consistency: The shared-consequences model.

A model of interattitudinal consistency was proposed to address: (a) the factors mediating political expert–novice differences in interattitudinal organization and (b) the processes mediating the development of interattitudinal organization among political novices. In Experiment 1, both expertise and situationally induced thought (among novices) heightened the extent to which pairs of policies were viewed as instrumentally influencing the attainment of a common set of values, which in turn influenced the structural balance of participants' attitudes. Moreover, both expertise and thought (among experts) heightened the ideological consistency of participants' attitudes. In Experiment 2, thought related to values or implicational relations increased the structural balance of novices' attitudes, whereas ideology-related thought increased the ideological consistency of experts' attitudes. Discussion focuses on a general consequences-based model of interattitudinal structure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Skill in expert dogs.

The motor control of novice participants is often cognitively demanding and susceptible to interference by other tasks. As people develop expertise, their motor control becomes less susceptible to interference from other tasks. Researchers propose a transition in human motor skill from active control to automaticity. This progression may also be the case with nonhuman animals. Differences in performance characteristics between expert, advanced, intermediate, and novice dogs competing in the sport of agility were investigated. There were statistically significant differences between dogs of varying competitive levels in speed, motor control, and signal detections suggestive of increasing motor control automaticity in highly skilled, or expert, dogs. The largest sequential motor control difference was between novice and intermediate dogs, d = .96, whereas the largest sequential signal detection difference was between advanced and expert dogs, d = .90. These findings have two significant implications for expertise researchers: first, the observed similarities between dogs and humans may enable dogs to be used as expert models; and second, expertise science and methods may be profitably employed in the future to create more proficient canine workers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Training 'greeble' experts: a framework for studying expert object recognition processes

Twelve participants were trained to be experts at identifying a set of 'Greebles', novel objects that, like faces, all share a common spatial configuration. Tests comparing expert with novice performance revealed: (1) a surprising mix of generalizability and specificity in expert object recognition processes; and (2) that expertise is a multi-faceted phenomenon, neither adequately described by a single term nor adequately assessed by a single task. Greeble recognition by a simple neural-network model is also evaluated, and the model is found to account surprisingly well for both generalization and individuation using a single set of processes and representations.     

Role of the self-concept in the perception of others.

Defines the self-concept as a set of cognitive structures (self-schemas) that provide for individual expertise in particular social domains. Two studies were conducted with 62 male undergraduates with self-reported masculinity schemas (schematics) and 58 male undergraduates without schemas (aschematics) to examine the information-processing consequences of this expertise for the perception of others. Ss viewed a film and were required to unitize the film into segments, describe the actor, and recall the actor's behavior. Findings show that, in the unitizing task, schematics consistently divided a schema-relevant film about another person into larger units than did aschematics. In reconstructing the film sequence, schematics made more global conjectures about the personality and motivation of the target individual, implying an instance of expert performance, in which the self-schema provided the schematics with an interpretive framework for organizing the schema-relevant behavior of others. When given instructions to attend to the details of behavior, schematics made smaller units, whereas the performance of the aschematics did not vary. The role of the self-concept in the perception of others is seen to vary systematically with whether self or other is the cognitive reference point and the conditions associated with each are delineated. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual search for orientation among heterogeneous distractors: Experimental results and implications for signal-detection theory models of search.

Three experiments tested a signal-detection theory (SDT) model of visual search (e.g., as described in J. Palmer, C. T. Ames, & D. T. Lindsey, 1993). In Experiment 1, participants searched for a 0° line among distractors at (a) 30°; (b) ? at 30°, ? at 50°; (c) ? at 30°, 50°, and 70°; and (d) ? at 30°, ? at 70°. The SDT model predicts improved performance in the more heterogeneous conditions, as some distractors are more discriminable from the target. In contrast, in Experiment 1 human performance degraded in the more heterogeneous conditions (c and d). In Experiment 2, sparser displays improved the performance of the SDT model. In Experiment 3, search for θ° among homogeneous θ?+?20° distractors was compared with search for θ° among θ?±?20° distractors. Performance in the latter condition was often worse, relative to performance in the homogeneous condition, than predicted by the SDT model; however, this depended greatly on the identity of the target. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locomotor expertise predicts infants’ perseverative errors.

This research examined the development of inhibition in a locomotor context. In a within-subjects design, infants received high- and low-demand locomotor A-not-B tasks. In Experiment 1, walking 13-month-old infants followed an indirect path to a goal. In a control condition, infants took a direct route. In Experiment 2, crawling and walking 13-month-old infants crawled through a tunnel to reach a goal at the other end and received the same control condition as in Experiment 1. In both experiments, perseverative errors occurred more often in the high-demand condition than in the low-demand condition. Moreover, in Experiment 2, walkers perseverated more than crawlers, and extent of perseveration was related to infants’ locomotor experience. In Experiment 3, the authors addressed a possible confound in Experiment 2 between locomotor expertise and locomotor posture. Novice crawlers perseverated in the difficult tunnels condition, behaving more like novice walkers than expert crawlers. As predicted by a cognitive capacity account of infant perseveration, overtaxed attentional resources resulted in a cognition–action trade-off. Experts who found the task less motorically effortful than novices had more cognitive resources available for problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Association, inhibition, and object permanence in dogs' (Canis familiaris) spatial search.

The relative role of associative processes and the use of explicit cues about object location in search behavior in dogs (Canis familiaris) was assessed by using a spatial binary discrimination reversal paradigm in which reversal conditions featured: (1) a previously rewarded location and a novel location, (2) a previously nonrewarded location and a novel location, or (3) a previously rewarded location and a previously nonrewarded location. Rule mediated learning predicts a similar performance in these different reversal conditions whereas associative learning predicts the worst performance in Condition 3. Evidence for an associative control of search emerged when no explicit cues about food location were provided (Experiment 1) but also when dogs witnessed the hiding of food in the reversal trials (Experiment 2) and when they did so in both the prereversal and the reversal trials (Experiment 3). Nevertheless, dogs performed better in the prereversal phase of Experiment 3 indicating that their search could be informed by the knowledge of the food location. Experiment 4 confirmed the results of Experiments 1 and 2, under a different arrangement of search locations. We conclude that knowledge about object location guides search behavior in dogs but it cannot override associative processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The entry point of face recognition: Evidence for face expertise.

Previous studies have shown that experts (e.g., birdwatchers) are as fast to recognize objects at subordinate levels of abstraction (e.g., robin) as they are to recognize the same object at the basic level (e.g., bird). As a test of face expertise, the current study found that adults identify faces more frequently (Experiment 1) and as quickly (Experiment 2) at the subordinate level (e.g., Bill Clinton) as at the basic level (e.g., human). Whereas brief presentation (75 ms) impaired subordinate-level recognition of nonface objects, it did not impair the subordinate level recognition of faces (Experiment 3). Finally, in an identity-matching task, subordinate-level primes facilitated the matching responses of faces but not nonface objects (Experiment 4). Collectively, these results indicate that face expertise, like expert object expertise, promotes a downward shift in recognition to more subordinate levels of abstraction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An objective evaluation of the effectiveness of different methods of displaying three-dimensional information with medical x-ray images

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: The authors determine the effectiveness of stereoscopy and vertical-axis rotation for displaying three-dimensional (3-D) information in x-ray images. METHODS: Simple x-ray images were simulated using ray tracing and computer-displayed in monoscopic static (MS), monoscopic rotating (MR), stereoscopic static (SS), and stereoscopic rotating (SR) formats. In two experimental tasks, participants including experts (radiologists and radiographers) were shown images displayed in these four formats. Performance was measured by participants' accuracy of judgment, amount of time taken, and confidence in each response. The experts also informally evaluated the displays using complex fluoroscopic skull images and a simulated diagnostic task. RESULTS: The results from both tasks were consistent and showed MS to be least effective and SR to be most effective on all measures. There was no difference in performance between the nonexperts and experts, whose informal feedback consolidated the experimental findings. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that rotational stereoscopic fluoroscopy is feasible and is an effective way of portraying 3-D information using x-rays.     

Object permanence in ring doves (Streptopelia risoria).

Object permanence tests were administered to ring doves (Streptopelia risoria). In Experiment 1 (N?=?4), doves received tests in which a food cup was moved behind a screen as the subject watched. The birds successfully retrieved the food when a single screen was used but failed to do so when food was displaced behind 1 of 2 simultaneously present screens. In Experiment 2 (N?=?4), doves were allowed to initiate search movement before the object disappeared behind 1 of 2 screens. This procedural change improved performance. In Experiment 3 (N?=?2), a screen was lowered over a stationary object as the subject approached the object. Lowering the screen interrupted search behavior temporarily without impairing performance. It is argued that interruption of search behavior requires some cognitive flexibility that the typical Stage 4a capacity described in Piaget's theory does not include. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Allocation of surgical procedures to operating rooms

Reduction of health care costs is of paramount importance in our time. This paper is a part of the research which proposes an expert hospital decision support system for resource scheduling. The proposed system combines mathematical programming, knowledge base, and database technologies, and what is more, its friendly interface is suitable for any novice user. Operating rooms in hospitals represent big investments and must be utilized efficiently. In this paper, first a mathematical model similar to job shop scheduling models is developed. The model loads surgical cases to operating rooms by maximizing room utilization and minimizing overtime in a multiple operating room setting. Then a prototype expert system which replaces the expertise of the operations research analyst for the model, drives the modelbase, database, and manages the user dialog is developed. Finally, an overview of the sequencing procedures for operations within an operating room is also presented.     

Visual search for natural grains in pigeons (Columba livia): Search images and selective attention.

The experiments reported here were designed to test the suggestion of many researchers that selective attention to visual features of a prey can account for search-image effects. In 3 experiments pigeons ate wheat and vetch grains presented on multicolored and gray gravel trays. In Experiment 1 search-image effects were evident when grains were cryptic but not when they were conspicuous. Experiment 2 demonstrated that search images can be activated when the grains encountered are either cryptic or conspicuous but that search images affect search performance only when the grains are cryptic. Experiment 3 demonstrated that search images are short-term in nature: A 3-min delay between successive encounters with a type of grain disrupted an activated search image. The discussion addresses how these results further develop a model in which search images are viewed as selective attention to visual features of a prey. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of guided exploration and enactive exploration on self-regulatory mechanisms and information acquisition through electronic search.

Following instruction in basic skills for electronic search, participants who practiced in a guided exploration mode developed stronger self-efficacy and greater satisfaction than those who practiced in a self-guided exploratory mode. Intrinsic motivation was not affected by exploration mode. On 2 posttraining tasks, guided exploration participants produced more effective search strategies, expended less effort, made fewer errors, rejected fewer lines of search, and achieved higher performance. Relative lack of support for self-regulatory factors as mediators of exploration mode impacts was attributed to the uninformative feedback from electronic search, which causes most people to remain at a novice level and to require external guidance for development of self-efficacy and skills. Self-guided learning will be more effective on structured tasks with more informative feedback and for individuals with greater expertise on dynamic tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Radiation dose and diagnosticity of barium enema examinations by radiographers and radiologists: a comparative study

With the current emphasis on the extension of the role of the radiographer, radiographers in some hospitals now undertake some of the procedures traditionally performed by radiologists. In the present study, dose-area product (DAP) measurements for over 1000 barium enema examinations performed by radiologists and radiographers were analysed and compared to ascertain whether there were significant differences in the radiation dose to the patient, depending on the category of staff performing the examination. All examinations were reported by a radiologist. The radiologist's reports were analysed against the known outcomes to compare the diagnosticity of the examination when carried out by the two categories of staff. The study shows that although radiographers are able to produce consistent diagnostic results, there is an increase in patient dose due to extra films taken for reporting, which may be difficult to justify. Measures for reducing the dose from this component of the examination were explored.     

Visual search in a multi-element asynchronous dynamic (MAD) world.

In visual search tasks participants search for a target among distractors in strictly controlled displays. We show that visual search principles observed in these tasks do not necessarily apply in more ecologically valid search conditions, using dynamic and complex displays. A multi-element asynchronous dynamic (MAD) visual search was developed in which the stimuli could either be moving, stationary, and/or changing in luminance. The set sizes were high and participants did not know the specific target template. Experiments 1 through 4 showed that, contrary to previous studies, search for moving items was less efficient than search for static items and targets were missed a high percentage of the time. However, error rates were reduced when participants knew the exact target template (Experiment 5) and the difference in search efficiency for moving and stationary targets disappeared when lower set sizes were used (Experiment 6). In all experiments there was no benefit to finding targets defined by a luminance change. The data show that visual search principles previously shown in the literature do not apply to these more complex and “realistically” driven displays. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The cognitive skill of teaching.

Characterizes teaching as a complex cognitive skill amenable to analysis in a manner similar to other skills described by cognitive psychology. A formal model of the process of instruction in elementary mathematics is presented and examined in light of empirical data from 8 expert and 4 novice teachers. The model's perspective is that teaching skill rests on 2 fundamental knowledge systems: lesson structure and subject matter. Instructional segments were analyzed to clarify the nature of instructional action and goal systems that support competence. The expert teachers were shown to be characterized by use of well-practiced routines, effective application of guided or monitored practice, methods of obtaining feedback on the performance of all children, and efficient presentation of material. Analyses of specific teaching episodes are presented. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Characteristics of associative learning in younger and older adults: Evidence from an episodic priming paradigm.

Two experiments investigated age differences in the encoding of associative information during a speeded naming task. In both experiments, semantically unrelated prime-target word pairs were presented 4 times, in either massed or spaced fashion, during the learning phase. An immediate or delayed test trial was presented following the fourth presentation. In Experiment 1, participants named both the primes and the targets. Younger and older adults showed similar benefits when naming targets that were part of a consistent prime-target pairing compared with targets presented with different primes at each presentation. In Experiment 2, participants named only the target word. Younger adults showed a benefit for consistently paired words, whereas older adults showed no benefit for consistently paired words. The results of the test trials showed a greater benefit for massed repeated words than for spaced repeated words at the immediate test and a reversed pattern at the delayed test. This spacing by test delay interaction was evident in response latency in Experiment 1 and in cued recall performance in Experiment 2. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Value of information, behavioral guidelines, and social value orientation in an information-exchange dilemma.

Many situations of information exchange represent a social dilemma, in which individual costs and benefits for contributing information are contradictory to the group's costs and benefits. Recent studies have shown that (a) people select their contributions according to the benefit that these contributions provide to others, (b) the social value orientation of individuals affects their willingness to contribute, and (c) externally provided behavioral guidelines have an impact on individual behavior. We conducted 2 experiments in which people were able to actively manipulate the value that their information had for others (in Study 1, this value had no influence on their own costs; in Study 2, a higher value to others implied higher contribution costs for the individual contributor). Both studies revealed that people avoided contributing such information that would have provided others with a higher benefit than the benefit the individual contributors themselves received through this information. Even prosocials—who generally acted more cooperatively than proselfs—behaved like that. In both studies, behavioral guidelines had an impact on the number of contributions, independent of the value of information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Panoramic Search: The Interaction of Memory and Vision in Search Through a Familiar Scene.

How do observers search through familiar scenes? A novel panoramic search method is used to study the interaction of memory and vision in natural search behavior. In panoramic search, observers see part of an unchanging scene larger than their current field of view. A target object can be visible, present in the display but hidden from view, or absent. Visual search efficiency does not change after hundreds of trials through an unchanging scene (Experiment 1). Memory search, in contrast, begins inefficiently but becomes efficient with practice. Given a choice between vision and memory, observers choose vision (Experiments 2 and 3). However, if forced to use their memory on some trials, they learn to use memory on all trials, even when reliable visual information remains available (Experiment 4). The results suggest that observers make a pragmatic choice between vision and memory, with a strong bias toward visual search even for memorized stimuli. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)