Commercializable power source using heterogeneous hydrino catalysts

Using Maxwell's equations, the structure of the electron was derived by Mills as a boundary-value problem wherein the electron comprises the source current of time-varying electromagnetic fields during transitions with the constraint that the bound n = 1 state electron cannot radiate energy. A reaction predicted by the solution involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. Specifically, a catalyst comprises a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple m of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. The product is H (1/p  ), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms” wherein  n=1/2,1/3,1/4,…,1/p$n=1/2,1/3,1/4,\dots ,1/p$ (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The reaction step of a nonradiative energy transfer of an integer multiple of 27.2 eV from atomic hydrogen to the catalyst results in an ionized catalyst and free electrons that may cause the reaction to rapidly cease due to charge accumulation. Li, K, and NaH served as the catalysts to form hydrinos at a rapid rate when a high-surface-area conductive support doped with an oxidant was added to speed up the rate limiting step, the removal of electrons from the catalyst as it is ionized by accepting the nonradiative resonant energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos. The concerted electron-acceptor reaction from the catalyst to oxidant via the support was also exothermic to heat the reactants and enhance the rates. Using water-flow, batch calorimetry, the measured power and energy gain from these heterogeneous catalyst systems were up to over 10 W/cm³ (reactant volume) and a factor of over six times the maximum theoretical, respectively. The reaction scaled linearly to 580 kJ that developed a power of about 30 kW. Solution ¹H NMR on samples extracted from the reaction products in DMF-d7 showed the predicted H₂ (1/4) and H⁻ (1/4) at 1.2 ppm and −3.8 ppm, respectively. ToF-SIMs showed sodium hydrino hydride peaks such as NaH_x, peaks with NaH catalyst, and the predicted 11 eV binding energy of H⁻ (1/4) was observed by XPS. In an advancement over prior NaOH-doped Raney Ni power systems, the reactants of each solid fuel or heterogeneous-catalyst system can be regenerated from the products using commercial chemical-plant systems. Based on the observed energy gain and successful thermal regeneration, green power plants can be operated continuously as power and eutectic-melt electrolysis or thermal regeneration reactions are maintained in synchrony. The system is closed except that only hydrogen consumed in forming hydrinos need be replaced. Hydrogen can be obtained ultimately from the water with 200 times the energy release relative to combustion. These results indicate current commercial feasibility.     

Hydrino continuum transitions with cutoffs at 22.8 nm and 10.1 nm

Classical physical laws predict that atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy in integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m·27.2 eV, wherein m is an integer. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to the catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms,” wherein n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,…, 1/p (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each hydrino state also comprises an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon increases the binding rather than decreasing it corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, two H atoms formed from H₂ by collision with a third, hot H can act as a catalyst for this third H by accepting 2·27.2 eV from it. By the same mechanism, the collision of two hot H₂ provide 3H to serve as a catalyst of 3·27.2 eV for the fourth. Following the energy transfer to the catalyst an intermediate is formed having the radius of the H atom and a central field of 3 and 4 times the central field of a proton, respectively, due to the contribution of the photon of each intermediate. The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration to a stable state having a radius that is 1/3 (m = 2) or 1/4 (m = 3) the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom with the further release of 54.4 eV and 122.4 eV of energy, respectively. This energy emitted as a characteristic EUV continuum with a cutoff at 22.8 nm and 10.1 nm, respectively, was observed from pulsed hydrogen discharges. The continua spectra directly and indirectly match significant celestial observations.     

Combustion of micron-sized aluminum particle,liquid water,and hydrogen peroxide mixtures

The combustion of aluminum particle, liquid water, and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) mixtures is studied theoretically for a pressure range of 1–20 MPa and particle sizes between 3 and 70 μm. The oxidizer-to-fuel (O/F) weight ratio is varied in the range of 1.00–1.67, and four different H₂O₂ concentrations of 0%, 30%, 60%, and 90% are considered. A multi-zone flame model is developed to determine the burning behaviors and combustion-wave structures by solving the energy equation in each zone and enforcing the temperature and heat-flux continuities at the interfacial boundaries. The entrainment of particles is taken into account. Key parameters that dictate the burning properties of mixtures are found to be the thermal diffusivity, flame temperature, particle burning time, ignition temperature, and entrainment index of particles. When the pressure increases from 1 to 20 MPa, the flame thickness decreases by a factor of two. The ensuing enhancement of conductive heat flux to the unburned mixture thus increases the burning rate, which exhibits a pressure dependence of the form r_b = ap^m. The exponent, m, depends on reaction kinetics and convective motion of particles. Transition from diffusion to kinetically-controlled conditions causes the pressure exponent to increase from 0.35 at 70 μm to 1.04 at 3 μm. The addition of hydrogen peroxide has a positive effect on the burning properties. The burning rate is nearly doubled when the concentration of hydrogen peroxide increases from 0 to 90%. For the conditions encountered in this study, the following correlation for the burning rate is developed: _rb[cm/s]=4.97(p[MPa])^0.37(_dp[μm])^-0.85(O/F)^-0.54exp(0.0066CH₂O₂).$r_b[\text{cm}/\text{s}]=4.97{(p[\text{MPa}])}^{0.37}{(d_p[\mathrm{\mu }\text{m}])}^{-0.85}{(\text{O}/\text{F})}^{-0.54}\exp (0.0066{\text{C}}_{{\text{H}}_2{\text{O}}_2})\text{.}$     

Effect of ferrous ion on photo heterotrophic hydrogen production by Rhodobacter sphaeroides

The effect of ferrous ion (0–3.2 mg/l) on photo heterotrophic hydrogen production was studied in batch culture using sodium lactate as substrate. The results showed that hydrogen production by Rhodobacter sphaeroides   was significantly suppressed when Fe²⁺${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ was limited. Hydrogen production increased linearly with an increase in Fe²⁺${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ concentration in the range of 0–1.6 mg/l; reaching a maximum at 2.4 mg/l. When hydrogen production was suppressed in the above medium, a pH increase to 8.9 was observed, and the ratio of lactate utilized to total organic carbon removal was found to be increased, indicating that more soluble organic products were produced. Under the Fe²⁺${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ limited conditions, ferrous iron was shown to have a greater effect on hydrogen production by Rb. sphaeroides than that by the anaerobic heterotrophic bacterium Clostridium butyricum.     

Ti–Ni alloys as MH electrodes in Ni–MH accumulators

In hydrogen solid–gas reaction at 300 K and 1 bar, the hydrogen content for Ti_3.87Ni_1.73Fe_0.7O_x (0.2≤ × ≤0.8) alloys was in range 1.93–0.05 (Cwt.H,%), and discharge capacity of 360–235 A h/kg was achieved accordingly. The ΔHH₂$\Delta H_{{\text{H}}_2}$ and ΔSH₂$\Delta S_{{\text{H}}_2}$ values of −32.29 kJ mol⁻¹ and −111.04 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹, respectively, for Ti_3.87Ni_1.73Fe_0.7O_0.5 alloy were obtained using experimental PCT relations, where hysteresis effect was only slightly visible. The half-cell potentials (vs. Hg/HgO) of metal hydride (MH) electrodes based on Ti_3.87Ni_1.73Fe_0.7O_x (0.2≤ ×≤ 0.8) alloys were calculated.     

Electron paramagnetic resonance proof for the existence of molecular hydrino

Quantum mechanics postulates that the hydrogen atom has a stable ground state from which it can be promoted to excited states by capture of electromagnetic radiation, with the energy of all possible states given by E_n = ?13.598/n² eV, in which n ≥ 1 is a positive integer. It has been previously proposed that the n = 1 state is not the true ground state, and that so-called hydrino states of lower energy can exist, which are characterized by fractional quantum numbers n = 1/p, in which 1 < p ≤ 137 is a limited integer. Electron transition to a hydrino state, H(1/p) is non-radiative and requires a quantized amount of energy, 2mE₁ (m is an integer), to be transferred to a catalyst. Numerous putative hydrino-forming reactions have been previously explored and the products have been characterized by a range of analytical methods. Molecular hydrino has been predicted to be paramagnetic. Here, we give an account of an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) study of molecular hydrino H₂(1/4) that was produced as gaseous inclusion in polymeric Ga(O)OH by a plasma reaction of atomic hydrogen with non-hydrogen bonded water as the catalyst. A sharp, complex, multi-line EPR spectrum is found, whose detailed properties prove to be consistent with predictions from hydrino theory. Molecular hydrino was also identified in gas chromatography as a compound faster than molecular hydrogen.     

Stoichiometric analysis of biological hydrogen production by fermentative bacteria

In this study, biohydrogen production from glucose by two fermentative bacteria (Clostridium butyricum, a typical strictly anaerobic bacterium, and Klebsiella pneumoniae, a well-studied facultative anaerobic and nitrogen-fixing bacterium) are stiochiometrically analyzed according to energy (ATP), reducing equivalent and mass balances. The theoretical analysis reveals that the maximum yield of hydrogen on glucose by Clostridium butyricum is 3.26 mol/mol when all acetyl-CoA entering into the acetate pathway (α=1$\alpha =1$), which is higher than that by Klebsiella pneumoniae under strictly anaerobic conditions. In the latter case, the maximum yield by Klebsiella pneumoniae is 2.86 mol hydrogen per mol glucose when five sevenths of acetyl-CoA is transformed to acetate. However, under microaerobic condition the maximum yield of hydrogen on glucose by Klebsiella pneumoniae could reach 6.68 mol/mol if all acetyl-CoA entered into tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (γ=1$\gamma =1$) and a quantity of 53% of the reducing equivalents generated in the metabolism were completely oxidized by molecular oxygen. On the other hand, the relationship between hydrogen production and biomass formation is distinct by Clostridium butyricum from that by Klebsiella pneumoniae.   The former yield of hydrogen on glucose increases as biomass. In contrast, the latter one decreases as biomass in a certain range of molar fraction of acetate in total acetyl-CoA metabolism (5/7?β?0$5/7?\beta ?0$). Microaerobic condition is favorable for high hydrogen production with low biomass formation by Klebsiella pneumoniae   in a certain range of the molar fraction of all reducing equivalents oxidized completely by molecular oxygen (0.53?δ?0.83$0.53?\delta ?0.83$).     

Solid fuels that form HOH catalyst

Atomic hydrogen is predicted to form fractional Rydberg energy states H(1/p) called “hydrino atoms” wherein n = 1/2,1/3,1/4,…,1/p (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The transition of H to a stable hydrino state H[a_H/p = m + 1] having a binding energy of p²⋅13.6 eV occurs by a nonradiative resonance energy transfer of m⋅27.2 eV (m is an integer) to a matched energy acceptor such as nascent H₂O that has a potential energy of 81.6 eV (m = 3). The nascent H₂O molecule formed by an oxidation reaction of OH⁻ at a hydrogen anode is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H(1/4) with an energy release of 204 eV compared to the 1.48 eV required to produce H from electrolysis of H₂O. CIHT cells, each comprising a LiOH–LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input and hydrogen supplied to the anode was measured using an Arbin BT 2000. The electrical energies were continuously output over long-duration, measured on different systems, configurations, and modes of operation and were typically multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of about 2 at about 10 mW/cm² anode area. The power density was increased by a factor of over 10 by running a corresponding high current. The thermal energy balance of solid fuels that form the HOH catalyst by a reaction akin to those of CIHT cells were measured using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The DSC results confirmed water flow calorimetric (WFC) results and the former were further independently replicated at Setaram Instrumentation based in France. The thermal energy balance for solid fuels such as Co(OH)₂ + CuBr₂ and Cu(OH)₂ + CuBr₂ were up to 60 times the maximum theoretical for both types of calorimeters with supportive XRD of the WFC products. DSC performed on FeOOH and Cu(OH)₂ + FeBr₂ in gold crucibles at Perkin Elmer showed up to four times the maximum theoretical energy. DSC and XRD were independently performed on the starting materials. The MAS ¹H NMR showed a predicted upfield matrix shift of a KOH–KCl hydrino getter when exposed to the gas from a reacting Cu(OH)₂ + CuBr₂ solid fuel in a sealed cell. A Raman peak starting at 1950 cm⁻¹ matched the free space rotational energy of H₂(1/4) (0.2414 eV). The solid fuels scaled linearly to over 5 kW and confirm the energetic reaction of hydrinos and may serve as a thermally reversible system to continuously generate power for commercial uses.     

Optimizing hydrogen production from organic wastewater treatment in batch reactors through experimental and kinetic analysis

Anaerobic hydrogen production from organic wastewater, an emerging biotechnology to generate clean energy resources from wastewater treatment, is critical for environmental and energy sustainability. In this study, hydrogen production, biomass growth and organic substrate degradation were comprehensively examined at different levels of two critical parameters (chemical oxygen demand (COD) and pH). Hydrogen yields had a reverse correlation with COD concentrations. The highest specific hydrogen yield (SHY) of 2.1 mole H₂/mole glucose was achieved at the lowest COD of 1 g/L and decreased to 0.7 mole H₂/mole glucose at the highest COD of 20 g/L. The pH of 5.5–6.0 was optimal for hydrogen production with the SHY of 1.6 mole H₂/mole glucose, whereas the acidic pH (4.5) and neutral pH (6.0–7.0) lowered the hydrogen yields. Under all operational conditions, acetate and butyrate were the main components in the liquid fermentation products. Additionally, a comprehensive kinetic analysis of biomass growth, substrate degradation and hydrogen production was performed. The maximum rates of microbial growth (μ_m) and substrate utilization (R_su) were 0.03 g biomass/g biomass/day and 0.25 g glucose/g biomass/day, respectively. The optimum pH for the rate of hydrogen production (RH₂$R_{{\text{H}}_2}$) and SHY were 5.89 and 5.74 respectively. Based on the kinetic analysis, the highest RH₂$R_{{\text{H}}_2}$ and SHY for batch-mode anaerobic hydrogen production systems were projected to be 13.7 mL/h and 2.32 mole H₂/mole glucose.     

Integrated electrolyser—metal hydride compression system

Metal hydride thermal compression is a reliable process to compress hydrogen without contamination. We report on the development of a three-stage metal hydride hydrogen compressor. It will compress a part of the hydrogen produced by an electrolyser and will recycle the heat released by the electrolytic cells as its principal energy supply. This compressor will raise the hydrogen pressure from 1 to 20 atm, using three hydride compression stages working between 20 and 80 °C. This paper describes the design of the prototype and its connections with the electrolyser. We present our data on the _AB5${\mathrm{AB}}_5$ hydride materials that have been characterized and selected. Also, the construction of a lightweight hydride bed reservoir, developed specially for this application, preliminary results on heat transfer, reaction rate and efficiency, are discussed.