A Review of Microstructural Alterations around Nonmetallic Inclusions in Bearing Steel during Rolling Contact Fatigue

Microstructural alterations in bearing steels during rolling contact cycling have been reported in the literature for more than 60 years. These changes appear in different shapes and locations. One class of such alterations is “butterfly wings”: regions of microstructurally transitioned material that appear diagonally around nonmetallic inclusions and may serve as fatigue crack initiation sites. Over the course of the past half a century numerous experimental and multiple analytical efforts have been made to understand and model this phenomenon, yet a lot is to be discovered and understood about root causes and mechanisms leading to butterfly formation. This article presents a comprehensive overview of the crack nucleation phenomena due to butterfly formation, its characteristics, and its negative impact on bearing service life. Significant attempts that have been made to solve the problem over the past half a century are mentioned, with a focus on recent work. Unanswered dilemmas are particularly discussed to highlight avenues of future research.     

高碳贝氏体轴承钢滚动接触疲劳性能的研究

以GCr15Si1Mo贝氏体轴承钢为研究对象,在油润滑条件和无润滑条件下,对不同初始碳化物体积分数的试样进行滚动接触疲劳试验,采用扫描电镜观察试验前后试样的表面形貌和碳化物分布,并通过Weibull曲线确定试样滚动接触疲劳性能的优劣性。结果表明,在无润滑条件下,碳化物体积分数为1.9%的试样滚动接触疲劳性能优于碳化物体积分数为5.1%的试样。在油润滑条件下,贝氏体轴承钢的滚动接触疲劳性能的优劣性依次为：无初始碳化物试样、碳化物体积分数为5.1%试样、碳化物体积分数为1.9%试样。碳化物作为基体的硬质相,很容易成为疲劳源,无初始碳化物的贝氏体轴承钢的滚动接触疲劳性能优于有碳化物的贝氏体轴承钢;碳化物脱落后的凹坑增大了润滑油和试样表面的粘着力,有利于增加油膜厚度,从而提高滚动接触疲劳寿命。     

Development of a Granular Cohesive Model for Rolling Contact Fatigue Analysis: Crystal Anisotropy Modeling

In rolling contact fatigue (RCF), failure mechanisms are known to be very sensitive to material microstructure. Yet, among the different numerical models developed to predict RCF life, few models use a microstructure representation. A granular cohesive finite element model has been developed to simulate progressive damage of a structure subject to RCF and to investigate failure initiation mechanisms. This article focuses on the implementation of crystal elasticity in the model. The numerical analysis of a representative volume element (RVE) validates the use of cubic elasticity to represent crystal behavior. The influence of the RVE size and the influence of boundary conditions applied on the RVE are evaluated in the finite element approximation framework. With regard to the implementation of cubic elasticity in the RCF model, the generation of stress singularities at triple junctions is first highlighted. Then the average value of the intergranular shear stress is proved to be mesh size independent and therefore can be used as damage criterion. Finally, the influence of crystal elasticity on microcrack distribution is presented.     

Three-Dimensional Simulation of Rolling Contact Fatigue Crack Growth in UIC60 Rails

In this article, a UIC60 rail with accurate geometry is studied by employing the finite element method. For this purpose, a three-dimensional elastic-plastic finite element model is conducted using model. In addition, the stress distribution of wheel-rail operation is acquired, and its effects on fatigue life are specified by damage mechanic methods. In the finite element model, the displacements and stress intensity factors (SIFs) are computed on the crack near the leading edge to calculate crack propagation trajectories and crack growth rate. The modified Paris model is used to estimate fatigue crack growth rates.     

轧机油膜轴承锥套接触疲劳损伤的机理分析

研究了油膜轴承锥套与辊颈接触表面在轧制载荷作用下发生微动疲劳损伤的力学机理。在分析油膜轴承油膜压力分布特征的基础上,采用有限元法给出了锥套与辊颈接触区边缘产生接触应力集中和微滑移的分布规律,阐明了弹性结合连接的锥套与辊颈接触表面产生微动疲劳损伤的原因。利用断裂力学裂纹尖端应力场与接触边缘区域应力局部渐近场的等效原则,给出了疲劳裂纹自点蚀处萌生与扩展的力学条件。上述结果为锥套和辊颈的实际损伤状态及模拟试验所验证。     

Crack Propagation of Rolling Contact Fatigue in Ball Bearing Steel Due to Tensile Strain

Crack propagations or failure modes in rolling element bearings, which had been difficult to explain via conventional crack propagation mechanisms such as the orthogonal shear stress mechanism, were discussed from the viewpoint of a tensile strain mechanism. Contact stresses are compressive in three axes, whose values differ from each other; then strain can be tensile in one of these directions, acting at a right angle to the direction of maximum compressive stress. A crack is considered to propagate by this tensile strain. When contact stress is small, a crack produced by some cause can propagate by this elastic tensile strain. When contact stress is large, residual tensile strain is produced by plastic deformation, which can also influence the crack propagation. Several failure modes of rolling element bearings, which had been difficult to explain, were explained by tensile strain.     

弯矩作用下钢轨滚动疲劳裂纹扩展行为研究

在JD-1轮轨模拟试验机上,通过设计模拟小轮的结构,对钢轨试样在弯矩作用下的裂纹扩展行为进行研究.试验结果表明:裂纹一般在应力集中处萌生,当裂纹扩展到一定程度后容易产生变向甚至分叉;在其他参数相同的情况下,预制裂纹尺寸对疲劳裂纹扩展有较大影响,预制裂纹较宽时裂纹扩展速率明显加快.     

Service Loading of Rolling Bearings in Wind Turbine Gearboxes: X-ray Diffraction Material Response Analysis of White Etching Crack Premature Failures

Rolling bearings in wind turbine gearboxes occasionally fail prematurely due to white etching cracks. The appearance of preparatively opened fracture faces indicates damage initiation from the surface in most cases due to brittle spontaneous tensile stress–induced cracking. Under the influence of decomposition products of the penetrating lubricant, branching crack growth is subsequently driven by corrosion fatigue. The material response analysis of rolling bearings from all gearbox locations, based on X-ray diffraction residual stress measurements, reveals vibrations in service as the root cause of surface crack initiation. The occurrence of high local friction coefficients in the rolling contact is described by a tribological model. Depth profiles of the equivalent shear and normal stresses are respectively compared with the measured residual stress patterns and a relevant fracture strength. White etching crack failures are experimentally reproduced on a rolling contact fatigue test rig under increased mixed friction. Causative vibration loading is evident from material response analysis. The generation of compressive residual stresses by cold-working the surface is proven to be an effective countermeasure.     

某石化电厂脱硫装置导流罩失效分析

分析了某石化电厂高效脱硫装置导流罩破坏的原因。结果表明：由于混用了不合适的材料,该材料在硫酸环境中的交变应力下发生了开裂,其主要失效表现为点蚀、晶间腐蚀、应力腐蚀和腐蚀疲劳,失效的主要原因是腐蚀疲劳断裂和延迟断裂;晶间腐蚀和点蚀及其在应力作用下的发展是产生裂纹的重要原因。