Adjustment after spinal cord injury: Relationship to gender and race.

The 2 primary goals of the current study were: (1) to generate data on gender and race differences on subjective well-being (life satisfaction, adjustment, and problems) and (2) to develop an improved measure of subjective outcomes after spinal cord injury. Ss were 125 Caucasian females, 109 Caucasian males, 96 minority males, and 30 minority females who completed the multidimensional adjustment profile (MAP). Mean age of Ss was 38.8 yrs. 10 subjective scales were developed from the MAP, 9 of which were based on factor analysis of sets of 20 life satisfaction items and 31 problem items. Compared with minority Ss, Caucasian Ss reported higher levels of career satisfaction and fewer problems with skills deficit and financial limitations. Interactions between gender and race were observed for 3 scales (emotional distress, physical discomfort, and adjustment), with more positive scores reported by minority males and Caucasian females. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict over emotional expression: Psychological and physical correlates.

This study addresses the construct of conflict or ambivalence over emotional expression. Ambivalence is seen as an important mediator in the link between emotional styles and psychological and physical well-being. Using the "personal striving" framework, a questionnaire measure of ambivalent emotional strivings (AEQ) was designed. In Study 1, 292 Ss completed this measure along with questionnaire measures of expressiveness, social desirability, and intense ambivalence. Women scored significantly higher than men on both the AEQ and expressiveness. In Study 2, scores on the AEQ were found to be negatively correlated with self-reported and peer-rated expressiveness. In Study 3, 48 Ss participated in a 21-day study of mood and health. Expressiveness was positively correlated with some measures of well-being and with daily negative affect. Ambivalence was positively correlated with several indices of psychological distress. Although the AEQ correlated with questionnaire measures of physical symptomatology, neither the AEQ nor the expressiveness measures correlated with daily symptom reports. Results support the contention that conflict over emotional expressiveness is a variable worthy of study in its own right, having implications for research on personality and health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory accuracy in the recall of emotions.

Study tested whether Ss could accurately estimate the intensity and the relative frequency of their positive vs. negative emotions and the degree to which 1 dimension biases the recall of another. Ss completed mood reports at random moments each day or at the end of the day against which were compared their mood estimates. Estimates made prior to the mood-reporting periods were used to control for the effects of prolonged mood reporting. Various types of accuracy were examined: absolute, in which Ss overestimated their emotional intensity and underestimated the frequency of their positive affect vs. their negative affect; relative, in which Ss' relative frequency estimates were moderately accurate; and discriminant, in which intensity estimates were biased by actual frequency, whereas frequency estimates were unbiased by intensity. Ss' accuracy did not improve substantially following the daily recording of their moods, suggesting a problem at the retrieval stage. The theoretical and measurement implications of the results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facial signs of emotional experience.

35 right-handed White females (18–35 yrs) viewed positive and stress-inducing motion picture films and then reported on their subjective experience. Spontaneous facial expressions provided accurate information about more specific aspects of emotional experience than just the pleasant vs unpleasant distinction. The facial action coding system (P. Ekman and W. V. Friesen, 1978) isolated a particular type of smile that was related to differences in reported happiness between Ss who showed this action and Ss who did not, to the intensity of happiness, and to which of 2 happy experiences was reported as happiest. Ss who showed a set of facial actions hypothesized to be signs of various negative affects reported experiencing more negative emotion than Ss who did not show these actions. How much these facial actions were shown was related to the reported intensity of negative affect. Specific facial actions associated with the experience of disgust are identified. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improving the performance of college freshmen with attributional techniques.

Reports 2 replications of the authors' (see record 1982-26799-001) study in which college freshmen were given information suggesting that the causes of low grades are unstable. Compared with a control group, these Ss did better on both short-term and long-term performance measures. The long-term results, however, tended to be weak or open to alternative explanations. In the 1st replication, 39 2nd-semester freshmen with low GPAs who worried about their academic performance were assigned to control or treatment conditions. Ss in the treatment conditions received information that grades are low in the freshman year; some Ss were also told that grades improve thereafter. In the 2nd replication, 41 1st-semester freshmen who worried about their low GPAs received grade information, completed questionnaires, and completed some items from the Graduate Record Examination (GRE). Considered together, these 3 studies found that attributional interventions improved the performance of Ss on both short-term and long-term measures. Presenting Ss with information indicating that the causes of low grades in the 1st yr are temporary led to (a) improvement on sample items from the GRE and (b) increases in actual grades in the semester after the studies were conducted. Results were stronger for males than for females. This may have been due to the fact that females were more likely to find out on their own that the causes of poor grades are unstable. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impression formation: The role of expressive behavior.

35 female and 27 male undergraduates completed the Personality Research Form, Eysenck Personality Inventory, and Self-Monitoring Scale. Ss were also assessed on posed emotional sending ability and on physical attractiveness. Ss were then videotaped while giving a spontaneous "explanation." Trained coders measured 5 separate nonverbal cue factors displayed by the Ss in the videotapes. Groups of untrained judges viewed the tapes and rated their impressions of the Ss on scales of likability, speaking effectiveness, and expressivity-confidence. Males who were nonverbally skilled and extraverted tended to display more outwardly focused and fluid expressive behaviors, and made more favorable impressions on judges, than did males who scored low on the measures of nonverbal skills and extraversion. Females who were nonverbally skilled displayed more facial expressiveness, which led to more favorable initial impressions. It is suggested that these sex differences may reflect basic differences in the acquisition and use of expressive nonverbal cues by males and females. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affect intensity and phasic REM sleep in depressed men before and after treatment with cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Explored the relationship between daytime affect and REM sleep in 45 depressed men before and after treatment with cognitive-behavioral therapy and in a control group of 43 healthy Ss. The intensity of daytime affect (as measured by the sum of positive and negative affects) in depressed men correlated significantly and positively with phasic REM sleep measures at both pre- and posttreatment. This relationship was not found in healthy control Ss. In depressed men, both affect intensity and phasic REM sleep measures decreased over the course of treatment. The results suggest a relationship between phasic REM sleep and intensity of affect reported by depressed men. On the basis of this preliminary observation, it was hypothesized that abnormalities in phasic REM sleep in depressed patients are related, in part, to fundamental alterations in the intensity of their affective experience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social ties: Subgroup differences in costs and benefits.

Studied social support in response to stressful life events (i.e., whether social ties are stressful as well as supportive and whether there are subgroup differences in the efficacy of social support) among 314 women (mean age 34.7 yrs) with a mean educational level of 10.7 yrs and a mean family income of $7,500–20,000/yr. Ss completed measures of negative affect, perceived stressfulness of life events of significant others, and social support. Selected findings show that (1) the mobilization of social support was associated with better psychological well-being for Ss with greater personal resources; (2) Ss with lower levels of personal resources were more distressed by life events in the lives of their significant others, especially as the number of these events increased; and (3) subgroup effects of interpersonal support and stress on psychological well-being were independent and separate. It is concluded that Ss with greater material and psychological resources derived more beneficial support and suffered less stress from their social ties. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response biases and the relation between negative life events and psychological symptoms.

Investigated whether reporting biases can account for the correlation between negative life events and subclinical psychological symptoms. 73 undergraduates each brought a close friend to the experiment. Ss completed the Beck Depression Inventory, the Brief Symptom Inventory, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and a college student life events schedule. Friends were asked to report about life events experienced by the Ss. Findings did not support an S reporting bias associated with social desirability, depression, or symptoms. For one of the life events scales, depression was significantly associated with a higher rate of agreement between Ss and friends as to which negative events occurred to Ss. There were significant correlations between symptom and depression measures and life events measures that were free of S-reporting biases (Ss' negative life events reported by both Ss and their significant others, as well as Ss' negative life events as reported by significant others alone). Data suggest that response biases may not be able to account for the relation between negative events and psychological symptoms. It is contended, however, that the hypothesis that negative life events play a significant role in symptom development remains plausible. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental press and psychological need as related to academic success of minority group students.

Investigated the relationship between environmental press and psychological needs for both the most academically successful and the least successful black, Mexican-American, and American-Indian undergraduates (N = 138). Ss completed the College Characteristics Index (CCI) and the Stern Activities Index as measures of press and psychological need. Scores on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety scale and the Rotter Internal-External Control Scale were used to study the extent to which anxiety and achievement motivation affected academic success. Scholastic Aptitude Test scores were used as measures of academic success. Congruent relationships were found between nonintellectual environmental presses and psychological needs on emotional expression and dependency need factors for both academically successful and least successful Ss. Significant negative correlations on the Ego Achievement and Play-Work scales of the CCI suggest a press in the campus atmosphere for intellectualism without a corresponding psychological need. Implications for counseling minority students are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations between identity in young adulthood and intimacy at midlife.

A longitudinal study with 67 males and 75 females examined the relation between the development of ego identity by young adulthood and the establishment and maintenance of stable and enduring intimate interpersonal relationships by midlife. This relation was investigated further to discover how it might differ between men and women. As undergraduates, Ss completed measures of their demographic and psychometric characteristics, in addition to an identity scale, in 1963; in 1981, these Ss completed a follow-up questionnaire containing questions regarding their marital status (the measure of intimacy) and their personal, family, and professional life. The identity scale was initially cross-validated with other personality measures, such as the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), before being related to subsequent intimacy patterns. The achievement of ego identity was found to be important for the establishment (for men) and stability (for women) of marital relationships. Additional sex differences in happiness and spheres of life satisfaction were also found. These differences suggest differing developmental courses for young men and women as they establish themselves in the adult world. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factors influencing the selection of university majors varying in mathematical content.

53 male and 58 female undergraduates completed an arithmetic test and a questionnaire on their mathematics background, perceived skill, interest, and affect toward math. Most women avoided majors that required even moderate amounts of math, even though they were as skilled at arithmetic as males and had taken equivalent amounts of math in high school. Ss who were anxious about math avoided majors that had moderate or high math requirements. Ss who were less skilled at arithmetic chose majors with fewer math requirements. Because gender and negative affect toward math contributed independently to choice of major, interventions to combat math anxiety could be valuable for both males and females. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early abuse on adult affective reactions to exposure to dyadic conflict.

Studied the relationship between abuse in the family of origin and adult emotional responses to family conflicts in 60 males (mean age 19.7 yrs) and 60 females (mean age 19.6 yrs). Ss were administered the Conflict Tactics Scale and the Adjective Checklist (AC) to assess the tactics used by them to solve their problems and their emotional state, respectively. Ss listened to conflict tapes and completed another AC along with a set of perceptual questions. Exposure to conflict tactics in the family of origin was associated with heightened emotional responses to anticipated conflict, the effects being continued into adulthood. Antecedents to conflict were also related to family of origin experience with withdrawal, verbal and physical abuse. There was no significant difference between identification with the mother and the child, and the Ss identified more strongly with the father than the child. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expressed emotion, social skill, and response to negative affect in schizophrenia.

Examined social skills and social perception of 48 schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder patients (aged 18–55 yrs) in response to negative affect as a function of family expressed emotion (EE). Ss participated in a role-play test, a social perception test, and a problem-solving discussion with a family member and were assessed on several measures of symptomatology. EE of family members was evaluated with the Camberwell Family Interview. On the role-play test, Ss with less critical relatives became more assertive in response to increased negative affect from a confederate portraying either a family member or friend, but Ss with highly critical relatives did not. Ss with highly critical relatives were also less assertive when confronted with negative affect from a confederate portraying a family member rather than a friend. The behaviors of both relatives and Ss during a family problem-solving interaction were related to the EE dimensions of criticism, emotional overinvolvement, and warmth. Patient gender was also related to family problem solving but was independent of EE. S's ratings of affect on a videotaped social perception task were not related to family EE, and there were few differences in psychopathology between Ss with high and low EE relatives.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal striving differentiation and affective reactivity.

Examined the relation between affective reactivity (intensity and variability of mood) and cognitive differentiation through the personal striving (Emmons, 1986) framework in order to test the hypothesis that affective reactivity underlies differentiation. 88 Ss in 2 samples listed 15 of their personal strivings and rated them with respect to 3 measures of striving differentiation (interdependence, dissimilarity, and plans for accomplishing each). Experience-sampling and daily mood ratings were used to assess affect intensity and affect variability over a 3-week period. Emotionally reactive Ss possessed a more differentiated striving system. However, they generated fewer plans for accomplishing each striving than did less reactive Ss. Results are interpreted in terms of Larsen and Diener's (1987) arousal regulation theory of affect intensity and Linville's (1982, 1985) self-complexity/affect extremity model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multichannel responses to an interpersonal stressor: Interrelationships among facial display, heart rate, self-report of emotion, and threat appraisal.

60 undergraduates were exposed to a potent, provocative interpersonal stressor while facial displays of emotion were unobtrusively videotaped and heart rate was continuously monitored. Following the stressor situation, Ss completed the Differential Emotions Scale and a questionnaire designed to assess S's appraisal of threat. The video-taped facial expressions were coded by 13 naive judges to assess the intensity of the expression displayed. Minimally expressive Ss reported experiencing more guilt, displayed a significant heart rate increase, and evaluated the situation as more threatening than did the expressive Ss. Results are consistent with aspects of a discharge model of emotion that predict an inverse relationship between overt emotional displays and physiological reactivity in response to an emotional stressor. Findings argue against a facial-feedback hypothesis. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How unassertive women perceive emotional expressions.

Examined assertive and unassertive women's perception of others' emotional reactions. 96 undergraduate women completed the College Self-Expression Scale, an assertiveness inventory. Ss were presented with 12 requests which they imagined refusing. Ss were then shown, in sequence, 3 different photographs depicting the other person's response. Ss identified and indicated the intensity of the particular emotion they saw in the photograph. Results indicate that when viewing a smiling expression, low assertive Ss saw significantly more negative emotion and less positive emotion than high assertive Ss. High and low assertive Ss did not differ in the emotion they perceived in the slightly distressed or very distressed expressions. Results suggest an interpersonal focus in understanding unassertive behavior. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Congruence and vocational identity: Outcomes of career counseling with persuasive power.

A study with 84 female and 52 male community-college students with specific occupational choices tested whether congruence between occupational choice and inventoried interests and vocational identity are related to typical career counseling outcomes. Ss completed the Self-Directed Search congruence scale, a vocational identity scale, several scales from the Career Development Inventory, and the IPAT. Ss were categorized as congruent or not congruent and high or low in vocational identity. ANOVA tested whether the Ss differed on estimated career management skill, general and specific career information, decision making, and anxiety. Analyses were not significant for males but showed that females higher in identity estimated higher career maturity. Females high in congruence reported less anxiety, and females high in both congruence and identity had higher career decision-making skills and tended to have more general information. Findings suggest that congruence not accompanied by a sense of vocational identity is a transitional state, whereas high identity without congruence reflects an incomplete evaluation of self in relation to career. Implications for using congruence and vocational identity as outcome measures of counseling are discussed. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)