Optimization of stress wave propagation in a multilayered elastic/viscoelastic hybrid composite based on carbon fibers/carbon nanotubes

The hypothesis of incorporating carbon nanotubes (CNTs) into the interfacial layers of fiber‐reinforced polymer composites fiber‐reinforced Polymers (FRPs) to enhance their mechanical properties and mitigate the stress wave propagation during a blast event is investigated. A numerical model is developed to simulate the stress wave propagation in a laminated elastic/viscoelastic FRP. Coupled with multiobjective optimization paradigms, the optimal CNTs contents in the interfacial layers are determined to minimize the stress‐to‐strength ratio in each layer. A case study demonstrating the design of a five‐layered FRP subjected to a blast event is presented. The simulation revealed that the viscoelastic properties of the matrix material contribute significantly to the energy dissipation during stress wave propagation. It is shown that addition of 0.69% CNTs by volume to the epoxy interface significantly enhances the ability of composite to resist blast loading. Results were compared with a standard model that assumes only elastic behavior. POLYM. COMPOS., 2012. © 2011 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Nonisothermal transient filling simulation of fiber suspended viscoelastic liquid in a center‐gated disk

The present study numerically investigates a fiber orientation in injection‐molded short fiber reinforced thermoplastic composite by using a rheological model, which includes the nonlinear viscoelasticity of polymer and the anisotropic effect of fiber in the total stress. A nonisothermal transient‐filling process for a center‐gated disk geometry is analyzed by a finite element method using a discrete‐elastic‐viscous split stress formulation with a matrix logarithm for the viscoelastic fluid flow and a streamline upwind Petrov–Galerkin method for convection‐dominated problems. The numerical analysis result is compared to the experimental data available in the literature in terms of the fiber orientation in center‐gated disk. The effects of the fiber coupling and the slow‐orientation kinetics of the fiber are discussed. Also, the effect of the injection‐molding processing condition is discussed by varying the filling time and the mold temperature. POLYM. COMPOS., 2011. © 2010 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Short‐term flexural creep behavior and model analysis of a glass‐fiber‐reinforced thermoplastic composite leaf spring

Present work investigated the short‐term flexural creep performance of fiber reinforced thermoplastic injection molded leaf springs. Unreinforced polypropylene, 20 wt % short and 20 wt % long glass fiber reinforced polypropylene materials were injection‐molded into constant thickness varying width mono leaf spring. Short‐term flexural creep tests were performed on molded leaf springs at various stress levels with the aid of in‐house developed fixture integrated with the servo‐hydraulic fatigue machine. Spring rate reduction is reported as an index for the accumulated damage. Experimental creep performance of molded leaf springs for 2 h was utilized to predict the creep performance with the aid of four parameter HRZ model and compared with 24‐h experimental creep data. Test results revealed that HRZ model is sufficient enough to predict short‐time flexural creep performance of engineering products over wide range of stress. Test results also confirmed the suitability of long fiber reinforced thermoplastic material for creep application over other considered materials. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Tensile creep of a long‐fiber glass mat thermoplastic composite. I. Short‐term tests

This work is part of a larger experimental program aimed at developing a semi‐empirical constitutive model for predicting creep in random glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) composites. The tensile creep response of a long‐fiber GMT material has been characterized for 3‐ and 6‐mm thick material. Tensile tests showed that the variability within and between plaques are comparable with an overall variability of about 6% and 8% for the 3‐ and 6‐mm thick materials, respectively. The thicker material exhibited slightly higher variability and directional dependence due to greater flow during molding of the plaques. Short‐term creep tests consisting of 30 min creep and recovery, respectively, were performed over the stress range between 5 and 60 MPa. Three tests for determining the linear viscoelastic region were considered which showed that the 3‐ and 6‐mm thick GMT are linear viscoelastic up to 20 and 25 MPa respectively. The 6‐mm thick GMT consisting of a higher fiber weight fraction was linear over wider stress range. Furthermore, it was found that plastic strains were accumulated during creep, which suggests that a nonlinear viscoelastic–viscoplastic model would be more appropriate for long‐term creep at relatively high stresses, which will be presented in our companion paper. The magnitude of the plastic strains developed in the creep tests presented here was lower because a single specimen was loaded at multiple stress level over short durations. Hence, a nonlinear viscoelastic constitutive model has been developed for the two thickness materials. POLYM. COMPOS., 2009. © 2008 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Compressibility and relaxation of fiber reinforcements during composite processing

In many reinforced composite manufacturing processes it is necessary to compact the fiber materials to obtain the desired fiber/resin ratio in the finished part. Detailed knowledge of applied surface force versus material fiber volume is particularly important in processes such as pultrusion, resin transfer molding, and compression molding. The force required to compact a stack of reinforcing material is strongly dependent on the type of fiber used and its material form. Complicated interactions are possible, particularly when mixtures of unidirectional, oriented cloth and random fiber mats are used. This paper will present results of an experimental and analytical investigation of the response of various dry reinforcing materials subjected to compressive forces applied normal to their principle plane. Experiments were conducted by applying up to 8.6 MPa normal force to thick stacks of E-glass, graphite cloth, mat and unidirectional material and combinations of two different fiber orientation. Pressure versus fiber volume data were generated for both individual materials and various combinations. Experimental results were compared to analytical predictions. Data showed that the force versus deformation is very strongly dependent on the details of the fiber form or forms being used. There is structural relaxation during fiber compression. Relaxation is very related to fiber orientation, span length, and fiber breakage during compaction. Relaxation behavior decreases with fiber alignment. Random mats and 0/90 cloth show much more relaxation than unidirectional fibers. Data of relaxation is very well fitted with a Maxwell-Wiechert viscoelastic model.     

Rheological characterization of polymers fiber composite

The use of reinforced polymer composites has continued to show substantial growth due to desirable cost and performance characteristics, especially related to mechanical properties. Wollastonite and glass fibers are materials that can be used to improve polymer performance. Its vast array of applications suggests potential usage in various fields of work (e.g., plastics, friction materials paintings, coating, and construction products), but there is not much data available in the literature related to rheological properties of fiber reinforced polymers. In this work, a study of shear and extensional properties of composite materials containing wollastonite and glass fibers is performed using rotational and extensional rheometry. Suspensions containing different concentrations of wollastonite and glass fibers, in Newtonian and viscoelastic matrices are investigated. Results are obtained for different concentrations and temperatures. It is observed that even the addition of low fiber concentration can affect both shear and elongational properties, leading to different final products characteristics. POLYM. COMPOS. 34:1269–1278, 2013. © 2013 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Constitutive modeling of visco-hyperelastic behavior of double-network hydrogels using long-term memory theory

Double-network hydrogels with viscoelastic behavior are appropriate materials for biomechanical applications. In this article, the standard linear solid (SLS) rheological model for the linear viscoelastic materials is generalized to the viscoelastic materials with large nonlinear deformations. Based on this viewpoint, the constitutive equation is proposed as sum of two parts including the strain-dependent elastic stress, and the viscous stress, which depends on the strain and strain rate. The elastic part of the stress is modeled via considering a hyperelastic strain energy function, while the main core of the viscous stress part requires a time-dependent weight function to satisfy the long-term memory fading principle. In addition, the weight function is proposed such that it can capture the mechanical behavior trend corresponding to the strain and strain rate for a double-network hydrogel in the relaxation test. Finally, to evaluate the performance of the proposed constitutive equation for the mechanical behavior modeling of double-network hydrogels, the tests on these materials have been used, and the material parameters are determined from fitting the experimental results to the theory. The agreement of test and theory results showed that the proposed model is capable to model the mechanical behavior of double-network hydrogels.     

复合介质中裂纹缺陷与纤维的相互作用研究

纤维复合材料的损伤与破坏是缺陷萌生发展的过程。裂纹缺陷周围的应力变形场是影响裂纹扩展的重要因素。本文通过裂纹缺陷存在于纤维复合介质中的力学分析模型,由断裂力学中的J积分及有限元计算方法,探讨不同纤维组分和裂纹位于介质中不同位置时,应力场参量随之变化的规律,并进行了相关讨论分析。     

接缝宽度对铝合金玻纤复合层板拉伸性能的影响

以铝合金玻纤复合层板为研究对象.从金属层接缝界面端应力场分析出发,建立有限元模型,确定位移边界条件和载荷边界条件.利用有限元方法模拟出不同接缝宽度在常温下的热残余应力.通过实验得出常温和高温条件下的各个接缝宽度试样的破坏拉伸载荷.考察接缝大小对残余应力的影响和分布,从而研究其对铝合金玻纤复合层板拉伸性能的影响.     

Modeling matrix multicracking development of fiber-reinforced ceramic-matrix composites considering fiber debonding

In this paper, the effect of fiber debonding on matrix multicracking development of different fiber-reinforced CMCs is investigated using the micromechanical approach. The Budiansky–Hutchinson–Evans shear-lag model is adopted to analyze the fiber and matrix stress distributions of the damaged composite. The fracture mechanics approach is used to determine the fiber/matrix interface debonding length. Combining the critical matrix strain energy criterion and fracture mechanics fiber/matrix interface debonding criterion, the stress-dependent matrix multicracking development is analyzed for different fiber volume fraction, fiber/matrix interface properties and matrix cracking characteristic stress. The experimental matrix multicracking development of unidirectional C/Si₃N₄, SiC/Si₃N₄, SiC/CAS, SiC/CAS-II, SiC/SiC, SiC/Borosilicate and mini-SiC/SiC composites are predicted.     

A micromechanical approach to elastic and viscoelastic properties of fiber reinforced concrete

Some aspects of the constitutive behavior of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) are investigated within a micromechanical framework. Special emphasis is put on the prediction of creep of such materials. The linear elastic behavior is first examined by implementation of a Mori-Tanaka homogenization scheme. The micromechanical predictions for the overall stiffness prove to be very close to finite element solutions obtained from the numerical analysis of a representative elementary volume of FRC modeled as a randomly heterogeneous medium.The validation of the micromechanical concepts based on comparison with a set of experiments, shows remarkable predictive capabilities of the micromechanical representation.The second part of the paper is devoted to non-ageing viscoelasticity of FRC. Adopting a Zener model for the behavior of the concrete matrix and making use of the correspondence principle, the homogenized relaxation moduli are derived analytically. The validity of the model is established by mean of comparison with available experiment measurements of creep strain of steel fiber reinforced concrete under compressive load. Finally, the model predictions are compared to those derived from analytical models formulated within a one-dimensional setting.     

A structure and property based process window for void free thermoset composites

A process window providing guidelines to minimize internal stress levels and to prevent void formation during cure of thermoset composite materials is presented. A model taking into account the applied pressure and the level of stress borne by the fiber assembly was introduced to calculate the hydrostatic internal stress state in the resin during cure. Based on the fundamental mechanisms of matrix shrinkage and evolution of viscoelastic properties under the given processing conditions, the internal stress in the resin was calculated as a function of fiber volume fraction, fiber stacking sequence, applied pressure and resin conversion. This level of stress is compared to a criterion for void initiation in the resin. A process window was hence constructed for preventing void formation during cure. Composite laminates with different stacking sequences and fiber volume fractions were cured with different applied pressures within and out of the process window boundaries. The composite void contents were measured and correlated perfectly with the process boundaries. This process window construction taking into account the material vis‐coelastic properties and the composite architecture is a unique tool for determining optimum process condition of composite laminates.     

Stress relaxation of glass-fiber-reinforced rigid polyurethane foam

Flexural stress relaxations were measured for rigid polyurethane foams (PUF) and glass-fiber-reinforced rigid polyurethane foams (FRU). The results were successfully analyzed in terms of the five element Maxwell model: (1) Samples reinforced with longer fibers exhibit reduced stress relaxation and reduced temperature dependency of stress relaxation; (2) The increased expansion ratio reduces the flexural modulus of both reinforced and non-reinforced materials, but the stress relaxation tends to increase greatly at the higher temperature for PUF, while not so greatly for FRU; (3) The temperature dependency of E₁ decreases as longer fibers are used to reinforce the polyurethane. The dependency is minimal for the polyurethane reinforced with continuous fibers, where the reinforcing effect is maximal; and (4) The activation energy calculated from τ₂ according to the Arrhenius plot is smaller for the longer fiber reinforced polyurethane foams.     

Molding of PBO fabric reinforced thermoplastic composite to achieve high fiber volume fraction

In fiber‐reinforced plastic materials, the fiber volume fraction is one of the most important parameters, and it strongly influences the composite properties. However, it is hard to improve impregnation and the fiber volume fraction in fiber‐reinforced thermoplastics because thermoplastic resins have high melt viscosities. This study explored a reformative solution impregnation method for molding fabric‐reinforced thermoplastic composites with a high fiber volume fraction. The fiber volume fraction was significantly increased, to 60%, which is equal to that of fiber‐reinforced thermosetting plastic materials. A comparison indicated that a fiber‐reinforced thermoplastic and a fiber‐reinforced thermosetting plastic with the same reinforcing fiber had similar tensile properties and that the proposed molding method is effective in thermoplastic composite manufacture. POLYM. COMPOS., 34:953–958, 2013. © 2013 Society of Plastics Engineers     

含脱粘界面纤维增强复合材料应力传递的理论分析

取具有脱粘界面的连续纤维增强复合材料的特征体积单元为研究对象,在常规剪滞模型的基础上通过引入摩擦力概念,并考虑横向泊松效应及基体径向力作用的影响,得到了纤维、基体的轴向应力及界面剪应力沿纤维方向的解析表达式。结果表明:本文所用的改进剪滞模型能较准确地反映各相介质沿纤维方向的应力分布特征,特别是较清晰地描述了脱粘界面的应力渐变以及界面粘结与脱粘临界处出现的界面剪应力跳跃现象,取得了与有限元解较为一致的结果。     

Test method evaluation for fiber-reinforced molding materials

Standard test methods ASTM D-651 for determining tensile properties and ASTM D-790 for flexure properties are evaluated. Heterogeneous fiber distributions due to molding flow conditions are shown to yield test specimens wherein fiber orientation near surfaces is highly collimated while orientations in central regions are oriented approximately transverse to the specimen axis. In addition, the converging and diverging flow fields in the dog bone (ASTM D-651) specimen with end gate are shown to yield a variation in fiber orientation along the specimen length. Finite element analysis of the dog bone (ASTM D-651) reveals that stress concentrations and a non-uniform stress distribution are introduced due to the required gripping arrangement of the test standard. The flexural specimen is decomposed into two elements of a collimated and transverse fiber orientations and a mathematical model is developed which reflects the composite behavior of the beam specimen. Finally, it is concluded that the D-651 and D-790 test methods do not reveal intrinsic design data for fiber reinforced molding materials.     

Application of time–stress superposition to viscoelastic behavior of polyamide 6,6 fiber and its “true” elastic modulus

The viscoelastic behavior of semi‐crystalline polyamide 6,6 fiber is exploited in viscoelastically prestressed polymeric matrix composites. To understand better the underlying prestress mechanisms, strain–time performance of the fiber material is investigated in this work, under high creep stress values (330–665 MPa). A latch‐based Weibull model enables prediction of the “true” elastic modulus through instantaneous deformation from the creep‐recovery data, giving 4.6 ± 0.4 GPa. The fiber shows approximate linear viscoelastic characteristics, so that the time–stress superposition principle (TSSP) can be implemented, with a linear relationship between the stress shift factor and applied stress. The resulting master creep curve enables creep behavior at 330 MPa to be predicted over a large timescale, thus creep at 590 MPa for 24 h would be equivalent to a 330 MPa creep stress for ～5200 years. Similarly, the TSSP is applied to the resulting recovery data, to obtain a master recovery curve. This is equivalent to load removal in the master creep curve, in which the yarns would have been subjected to 330 MPa creep stress for ～4.56 × 10⁷ h. Since our work involves high stress values, the findings may be of interest to those involved with long‐term load‐bearing applications using polyamide materials. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017 , 134, 44971.     

A thermoviscoelastic analysis of process‐induced internal stresses in thermoplastic matrix composites

A numerical tool for predicting the evolution of internal and residual stresses during the processing of thermoplastic matrix composites has been developed. Based on a finite element formulation, the model accounts for the anisotropy, vis‐coelasticity and heterogeneity of the materials and represents mechanisms of both stress generation and stress relaxation. The viscoelastic properties are described by a linear thermoviscoelastic formulation. The model allows the buildup of stresses during processing to be monitored, in particular when the material is cooling through its transition temperatures, and enables the prediction of stress release and the resulting part waipage on demolding. Its use is demonstrated for unidirectional and crossply polyetherimide/glass fiber (PEI/GF) laminates processed by compression molding, and the influence of cooling conditions on stress levels is shown.     

Wood‐flour‐reinforced polyethylene: Viscoelastic behavior and threaded fasteners

The tensile stress relaxation and flexural creep properties of wood‐fiber‐reinforced low‐density polyethylene (WFRP) were measured at various temperatures and stress levels. Power law relations were used to correlate the data, and time‐temperature superposition was applied to tensile stress relaxation results. Stress relaxation in WFRP was similar to that of LDPE and greater than that in spruce. The clamping force and torque characteristics of self‐threading screws and internally threaded inserts were measured in WFRP, and the viscoelastic model was extended to predict the relaxation in screw clamping force as a function of time. Both screw pullout force and the amount of clamping force relaxation were greater in WFRP than in spruce.