The free-rider problem in intergroup conflicts over step-level and continuous public goods.

Free riding is a paramount consideration in intergroup conflicts because the benefits associated with such conflicts are public goods with respect to the members of a competing group. To study the free-rider problem and its effects on conflict resolution, (1) intergroup conflicts are modeled as team games; (2) a new team game that models intergroup conflicts over continuous public goods is introduced and is contrasted with a recently developed game that simulates intergroup conflicts over step-level public goods; and (3) 2 experiments that compared the effects of communication in the 2 team games are reported. Exp 1 shows that within-group discussion is highly effective in solving the intragroup dilemma in the step-level game but much less effective in the continuous game. In contrast, Exp 2 shows that between-group communication is highly effective in solving the intergroup conflict in the continuous game but considerably less effective in the step-level game. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Research paradigms and expected utility models for the provision of step-level public goods.

Examined 3 research paradigms for studying the provision of step-level public goods. In the "fear plus greed" paradigm, each of the players receives a monetary endowment and then may choose independently and anonymously whether to contribute it to a monetary public good. In the "no fear" paradigm, the opportunity to free ride is maintained, but a protection from having one's contribution wasted is provided; in the "no greed" paradigm it is possible to waste one's contribution, but not to free ride. Decision policies maximizing expected utility are derived for all 3 paradigms under homogeneity and heterogeneity assumptions. Testable predictions relating "fear," "greed," and expectations about the decisions of others are derived and discussed. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intergroup competition for public goods: Effects of unequal resources and relative group size.

Studied single-stage intergroup competition for public goods in small groups with total resources of equal size and binary contributions. In Experiment 1, the two competing groups were of equal size, but the individual resources (endowments) within each group differed from one member to another. The main finding was a negative relation between the endowment size and the likelihood of contribution. In Experiment 2, the ratio of public good to endowment was the same for all members of both groups, but sizes of the groups were unequal. We found no effect of group size per se on level of contribution. Theoretical and methodological implication of the findings are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Provision of taxoids in 1996: inequality of care

OBJECTIVE: To inventory the utilization of taxoids in 1996. METHODS: A survey was conducted in february 1997 among the medical heads of 130 Dutch hospitals. The questions about the use of taxoids (paclitaxel and docetaxel) in 1996 concerned indications, numbers of patients treated, the funding and possible financial restrictions on the treatment. Three weeks after the mailing of the questionnaire, a reminder was sent to hospitals that had not responded. The data from 120 hospitals where oncological care was administered were analysed. RESULTS: Of the 120 hospitals, 111 (92.5%) returned the questionnaire, from 114 locations. Twelve locations reported not having used taxoids, four of them partly for financial reasons. Taxoids had been used at 102 locations: at the expense of the hospital budget at 101 locations, and exclusively at the expense of sickness insurers at one location. At 27 locations, paclitaxel and docetaxel had also been issued in the context of trials, and at 7 locations also via special agreements with the insurers and (or) at the expense of the patient himself. Fifty-three of the 102 taxoid using hospitals had a financial upper limit or a maximum number of patients to be treated. Eighteen of the 102 locations where paclitaxel or docetaxel was issued reported that for financial reasons not all patients eligible for taxoids had been given these drugs. The indications varied from one hospital to another: 67 locations used them for first-phase treatment of patients with ovarian carcinoma, 96 locations for second-phase treatment of patients with ovarian carcinoma and at 91 locations, patients with mammary carcinoma were given taxoids when anthracyclines were no longer indicated. CONCLUSION: Hospitals in 1996 varied greatly with regard to issuing of taxoids. This diversity in part had financial causes. Restrictions on the issuing of taxoids for financial reasons lead to unequal access to care.     

Motivational bases of the public goods problem.

Compared 2 motivational bases for not contributing to a public good, desire to "free ride" (or greed) and fear of being a "sucker," among 110 Japanese undergraduates. It was hypothesized that these 2 types of motivation would be activated under different situations. When a public good was provided conjunctively, fear would have a strong effect but greed would not; when a public good was disjunctively provided, greed would have a strong effect but fear would not. In addition, it was predicted that the greater mutual trust existing among friends would make them contribute more than strangers would in the conjunctive condition but would make no difference in the disjunctive condition. Three types of production rules, in which a public good was conjunctively, disjunctively, or additively produced on the basis of members' contributions, were experimentally created. Half of the groups in each condition consisted of total strangers, and the other half consisted of friends. The hypotheses were supported when the size of the public good (bonus points) was relatively large. Also, Ss responded similarly in the conjunctive condition and in the additive condition. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intergroup competition for the provision of binary public goods.

An experimental paradigm is proposed for investigating interpersonal conflicts under conditions of intergroup competition. The paradigm constitutes an n-person game with imperfect and incomplete information in which the n players are divided into two groups, are each assigned monetary endowment, and must then decide independently and anonymously whether to keep the endowment or contribute it to the group's benefit. The group with the larger sum of contributions is provided with a monetary reward (binary public good), which is shared equally among all of its members regardless of their decision. Two alternative models are proposed and their testable implications are derived and discussed. Both assume maximization of expected utility, but their assumptions about the expectations each player holds about the decisions of the remaining players are different. The effects of predecisional communication are examined and several extensions of the basic paradigm are outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group correspondence biases and the provision of public goods.

Two experiments examined whether trait inferences and cooperative decisions in a social dilemma are influenced by biased perceptions of the group's past success or failure in resolving the dilemma. In each experiment, Ss joined a group that had previously either succeeded or failed to provide a step-level public good. Ss were informed of (1) the number of members who had contributed to the good, and (2) the investment quota, defined as the number of contributors needed for the good to be provided. The number of group members who had contributed was held constant, and the past success or failure of the group was determined by varying the severity of the quota. Ss in both experiments displayed the correspondence bias, judging successful groups as more cooperative and competent than unsuccessful ones. Moreover, past group success tended to engender cooperation in subsequent public goods problems, particularly those featuring severe or unknown quotas. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leadership in social dilemmas: The effects of group identification on collective actions to provide public goods.

Two experimental studies investigated the role of group identification in the selection of and cooperation with leaders to manage public good dilemmas. The findings of the 1st study revealed that there was a general preference to select leaders with a legitimate power base (i.e., democratic, elected, and internal leaders), but these preferences were particularly pronounced when people's identification with their group was high rather than low. The 2nd study complemented these findings by showing that when group identification was low, an instrumental leader (i.e., who punishes noncontributing members) was far more efficient than a relational leader (i.e., who builds positive intragroup relations) in raising contributions. Yet, when group identification was high, both leader types appeared to be equally efficient. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When inequality matters: The effect of inequality frames on academic engagement.

Research indicates that, among women and ethnic minorities, perceived inequality reduces the association between self-esteem and academic outcomes. The present studies demonstrate that the perception of social inequality does not always induce subordinate-group disengagement. Rather, inequality framed as dominant-group advantage allows subordinate groups to remain engaged and causes dominant groups to disengage. Experiments 1–3 demonstrate that academic inequality framed in terms of ingroup disadvantage causes Black, Latino, and female students to disengage, but inequality framed in terms of White or male advantage does not. Experiments 3 and 4 demonstrate the same effect for Whites and men—inequality framed in terms of the ingroup (i.e., advantage) causes disengagement, but inequality framed as outgroup disadvantage does not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of public and private self-consciousness on the public expression of personal beliefs.

Examined the joint effects of private and public self-consciousness (SC) on attitudinal consistency. 113 male undergraduates (categorized as high and low private and high and low public SC) reported their own attitudes toward punishment. Later, each S was asked to write an essay in which he restated his attitude. Immediately prior to writing the essay, S learned that he would also be discussing his opinion with either a partner who held an attitude opposite to his own or a partner whose attitude was unknown. As predicted, the attitudes expressed in the essays of high public SC Ss were more moderate than those expressed by low public SC Ss. One effect of this moderation strategy was to lower the correlation between privately held and publicly expressed beliefs among Ss high in public SC. In contrast, attitudinal consistency was substantial among Ss who were low in public and high in private SC. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of resources and alternatives on coalition formation.

Previous research has indicated that coalition formation is influenced by the players' resources and alternatives (game structure). However, on almost all occasions when both resources and game structure have been varied, they have been confounded. In the present study with 224 undergraduates, 4 different 4-person simple games were used, based on the same distribution of resources. These games were played both with and without resources being assigned. Thus, resource assignment and game structure were not confounded. Coalition frequencies and reward divisions were minimally influenced by assigned resources. Coalition frequency was inversely related to coalition size. Players' outcomes were inversely related to the size of the winning coalition and directly related to the number of their alternative small coalitions. Players' mean payoffs over all trials were related to the number and mean size of their minimal winning coalitions, relative to the other players. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of public and private failure on self-evaluation.

This study "examined how variations in the strength of social pressures, acting upon a person in the direction of lowering his self-evaluation, affect the evaluations the individual assigns to the quality of his performance, and to his more or less closely relevant abilities, after he has failed on a task… . Ss who made low evaluations of their performances did not evaluate these abilities differently under different experimental conditions… " but those who made high evaluations did. From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:1HJ23S. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Women and minorities in psychology: Income inequality reexamined.

Examines the data of N. F. Russo et al (see record 1982-12931-001) as proportions to compare the differences between median incomes of male vs female and minority vs nonminority psychologists and to see how these differences compare to some other fields. It is concluded that women of all ethnic backgrounds lag behind the traditional White male professional in income, with nonminority females lagging most. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cue exposure and deprivation on cognitive resources in smokers.

Examines the effects of manipulations designed to induce an urge to smoke on cognitive resources. Two cue-exposure experiments were conducted in which current smokers' reported urge to smoke and cognitive resources, as measured by a secondary reaction time (RT) probe, were assessed. In each study, Ss came to the laboratory twice, once while deprived of smoking for 12 hrs and once when they were nondeprived. During each session, Ss were exposed to both smoking and control cues. Results indicated that experimental manipulations designed to elicit a strong urge to smoke led to an increase in self-reported urge to smoke and a decrease of available cognitive resources, as measured by RT. In addition, these 2 measures were significantly correlated. These data, in conjunction with previous findings (M. A. Sayette et al, 1994) using alcohol-dependent Ss, lend support to the validity of RT as an objective measure of the effects of cue exposure on cognitive resources. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A test of four theories of coalition formation: Effects of payoffs and resources.

Used 3 coalition games to test the minimum resource, minimum power, and bargaining theories against each other and against equal excess theory; 144 male undergraduates were Ss. In Game X, all winning coalitions had the same payoffs but players had different resources; in Game Y, winning coalitions had different payoffs and players had different resources. The characteristic functions of the games (payoffs for the coalitions) were the same for Games Y and Z, and the resource distributions were the same for Games X and Z. Coalition behavior was virtually the same in Games Y and Z, but coalition behavior in these games differed from that in Game X. Thus, when there were differences in both coalition payoffs and individual resources, the payoffs rather than the resources tended to influence coalition behavior. Coalition behavior in Games Y and Z was best accounted for by equal excess theory, coalition behavior in Game X by bargaining theory. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of public and private self-awareness on deindividuation and aggression.

Tested the proposition, derived from the authors' (in press) differential self-awareness theory, that only 1 type of antecedent variable traditionally associated with deindividuation (attentional cues) and a single aspect of self-awareness (private) are involved in the deindividuation process. 48 male undergraduates were assigned to groups of 4 and were exposed to factorial combinations of attentional cues (internal vs external focus of attention) and accountability cues (potential accountability to authority figures and victims) and then allowed to aggress against a victim. As predicted, attentional cues affected private but not public self-awareness, whereas accountability cues altered public but not private self-attention. External attentional cues and low accountability cues disinhibited aggression relative to internal attentional cues and high accountability cues, respectively. Exposure to external attentional cues created an internal state of deindividuation, composed of reduced private self-awareness and altered experience, that mediated aggression. Two major types of collective aggression were identified: One category resulted from group members' assessments of the possibility of an authority figure's and the victim's surveillance of their attacks; the other category resulted from the decreased cognitive mediation of behavior evoked by the deindividuation process. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychologists in public service and the public.

"In the opinion of many, the most serious difficulty facing psychologists [in public service] is the attempt to subject professional work to close and minute administrative control." "Our job is not only to give service, but to improve the society we live in. This should be the major contribution of the psychologist in public service." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple resources in divided attention: A cross-modal test of the independence of hemispheric resources.

Used a dual-task methodology to assess a multiple-resources account of information processing in which each cerebral hemisphere is assumed to have access to its own finite amount of attentional resources. A visually presented verbal memory task was paired with an auditory tone memory task, and Ss, 19 right-handed male undergraduates, were paid to emphasize one task more than the other. When Ss were trying to remember tones presented to the right ear, they could trade performance between tasks as a function of the emphasis condition, whereas on left-ear trials they could not. A control session indicated that stimuli presented to the unattended ear demanded processing resources, even when it was to the detriment of performance. Data support the 2nd author and M. C. Polson's (see record 1982-07236-001) model of independence between the hemispheres' resource supplies. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Uncovering hidden resources: A challenge in assessment.

Describes 2 common shortcomings of assessment procedures in agencies that deal with client problems and adjustment: the concentration on negative aspects of functioning, with insufficient concern for positive aspects, and the focus on personal attributes and behavior, with insufficient attention to environmental aspects. These deficiencies distort the realistic assessment of client problems and interfere with optimal treatment plans. It is suggested that client assessments take into account environmental circumstances and that as much attention be devoted to clients' strengths as to their weaknesses. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Human resources in psychology: A 1982 update.

Presents information on psychology's human resources (e.g., employment of recent doctorate recipients, the projected number of research-oriented psychologists, federal support for research and clinical training). Seven articles are introduced that expand on information presented in the November 1981 issue of American Psychologist to update the psychological community. (0 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)