3D metal removal simulation to determine uncut chip thickness, contact length, and surface finish in grinding

The two most important geometric parameters that describe the mechanics of grinding are the uncut chip thickness and the contact length. Currently, analytical approaches are used to estimate these parameters. The accuracy of these approaches, however, is limited because they do not take into account the random shape, size, and protrusion height and placement of the abrasive grains around the circumference of the grinding wheel. In this paper, a simulation technique was used to gain new insight into the effect of the stochastic nature of grinding wheels on the geometric properties of the grinding process. The simulator was used to calculate the number of active grains, uncut chip thickness, and contact length for a stochastic wheel model of Radiac Abrasive’s WRA-60-J5-V1 grinding wheel. These values were then mapped to every grain on the grinding wheel and used to determine the instantaneous material removal rate of the wheel and workpiece surface finish. There was excellent agreement between the predicted and experimentally measured surface topology of the workpiece. The results suggest that only 10–25 % of the grains on the grinding wheel are active and that the average grinding chip may be as much as ten times thicker and ten times shorter than would be produced by a grinding wheel with a regular arrangement of cutting edges as assumed by existing analytical approaches.     

Image processing of grinding wheel surface

Identifying the situation of grinding wheel wear and loading is a very important issue for high efficiency grinding operations. This paper presents a new method that detects and identifies the chip loading and cutting edge wear of a grinding wheel using the image processing toolbox of MATLAB. The different optical characters of the metal chips and the abrasive grains are analysed. The Sobel operator is adopted to make edge detection. A sensitivity threshold based on the global condition is used to decrease the noise. Image dilation and erosion processes are used to ensure the edge of each loaded chip is covered by a continuous section. The ratios of chips are calculated and displayed to monitor the wheel surface working status.     

磨削过程模拟及磨削机理研究（上）

在前人磨削理论基础上对砂轮结构做了更接实际的随机性假设,应用计算机数字模拟技术对磨削全过程进行了模拟,获得了磨削过程和磨削表面的许多重要数据和结果,给出了砂轮表层的磨料中中切削的磨粒数目和切屑的长度、厚度和体积。在研究砂轮结构的基础上得出砂轮磨粒分布的随机性是磨削加工能产生表面低粗糙度的重要因素。对砂轮磨料粒度及砂轮修整的定量研究表面,要获得超低粗糙度值磨削表面不仅需要选择较细磨粒,而且需要对砂轮     

Cutting fluid performance in fine grinding

The cluster overcut fly grinding (COFG) technique in which a small patch of grains is used to grind a surface instead of using the entire wheel face was considered as a means for evaluating grinding fluids in terms of reduction in adhesion and wheel wear. The rate of wear was found to be similar for the COFG and complete wheel cases for a variety of grinding combinations provided that the undeformed chip thickness was maintained constant and an adjustment was made for the difference in the amount of material removed per grain in the two cases. At a normal wheel speed (6300 ft min^?1 (32 m^?1 s)) Al₂O₃ was found to give less wear than SiC when grinding AISI-SAE T15 tool steel and an undiluted grinding oil was found to be the most effective of the fluids tested. However, when titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V was ground at normal speed, SiC was found to give the best results using an extreme pressure grinding oil water solution of concentration 10 wt.%.     

Image processing of the grinding wheel surface

Identifying the situation of grinding wheel wear and loading is a very important issue for high-efficiency grinding operations. This paper presents a new method that detects and identifies the chip loading and cutting edge wear of a grinding wheel using the image processing toolbox of the MATLAB package. The different optical characters of the metal chips and the abrasive grains are analysed. The Sobel operator is adopted to make the edge detections. A sensitivity threshold based on the global condition is used to lower the noise. Image dilation and erosion processes are used to ensure that the edge of each loaded chip is covered by a continuous section. The ratios of chips are calculated and displayed to monitor the wheel surface working status.     

Grinding force and power modeling based on chip thickness analysis

The ability to predict grinding force and power is important to many aspects of grinding process optimization, monitoring, and control. This paper presents the predictive modeling of grinding force and power based on the probabilistic distribution of undeformed chip thickness as a function of the kinematic conditions, material properties, wheel microstructure, and dynamic effects. The chip thickness is the main random variable and it is expected to assume a Rayleigh probability density function. The model takes into account the microstructure of the grinding wheel given by the grain geometry and the static grain density in terms of the radial depth into the wheel. The dynamic cutting edge density was calculated incorporating the effects of kinematic and dynamic phenomena such as the kinematic hidden grains and the local grain deflection. The elastic deformation of the grinding contact length was also considered. The model was used to predict the total tangential and normal forces in surface grinding and the total grinding power in cylindrical grinding. In both cases experimental measurement data in the context of chip thickness probability density, tangential force, normal force, and power have been presented and compared to model calculations.     

磨削加工中的尺寸效应机理研究

从比切削能和比摩擦能的大小变化与磨削参数的关系出发,研究了磨削加工中的尺寸效应问题,结果认为：比切削能的尺寸效应是金属剪切流动应力的尺寸效应和磨粒顶端钝圆影响的综合作用结果;当磨削深度或工件进给速度减小时,平均未变形切屑厚度减小,金属材料的剪应变效应和剪应变率效应增强,而热软化效应减弱,从而金属材料的剪切流动应力增大;当未变形切屑厚度减小时,磨粒顶端钝圆的影响增大;比摩擦能的尺寸效应是由于工件和砂轮的实际接触面积与磨削深度之间存在非线性关系及工件和砂轮间的摩擦因数的速度效应造成的;当工件进给速度减小时,工件与砂轮磨损平面间的摩擦因数增大。     

A New Slip-Line Field Modeling of Orthogonal Machining with a Rounded-Edge Worn Cutting Tool

In this study, a new slip-line field model and its associated hodograph for orthogonal cutting with a rounded-edge worn cutting tool are developed using Dewhurst and Collins's matrix technique. The new model considers the existence of dead metal zone in front of the rounded-edge worn cutting tool. The ploughing force and friction force occurred due to flank wear land, chip up-curl radius, chip thickness, primary shear zone thickness and length of bottom side of the dead metal zone are obtained by solving the model depending on the experimental resultant force data. The effects of flank wear rate, cutting edge radius, uncut chip thickness, cutting speed and rake angle on these outputs are specified.     

Experimental study of wheel wear in electrolytic in-process dressing and grinding

Profile accuracy of components ground with ultra-precision machine tools is primarily dependent on wheel wear. Quantitative analysis of wheel wear is therefore an important aspect for precision grinding with electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID). In this paper, wheel wear is measured from ELID grinding experiments with different dressing and machining parameters. The grinding forces and dressing current characteristics of the experiments are also compared. Based on the results, a benchmark function is defined for wheel wear rate. A relation for identifying insufficient dressing from sufficient dressing for particular machining conditions is also identified. It is found that insufficient dressing produces pitting and/or arcing on the wheel surface, and wheel wear can be linearly correlated to ELID grinding conditions when the wheels are sufficiently dressed.     

CBN砂轮超高速磨削条件下加工表面粗糙度的实验研究

在高速超高速磨削工艺实验基础上,分析了砂轮线速度、切削深度、最大未变形切屑厚度等工艺参数对45#钢、40Cr两种材料磨削表面粗糙度的影响,揭示了在高速超高速磨削条件下用CBN砂轮进行磨削时,表面粗糙度值随砂轮线速度的提高而减小,随切削深度及最大未变形切屑厚度增加而加大的变化规律和机理。为特定材料在高速超高速磨削条件下的加工提供了参考依据。     

纵向力对列车车轮磨损特性的影响

列车在加速和减速过程中车轮将承受纵向力的作用,随着纵向力的增加,车轮的损伤也随之加重,其中车轮的磨损成了迫切需要研究的课题。通过磁粉制动器在JD 1轮轨模拟试验机上设定不同的纵向力,研究其对车轮磨损特性的影响。结果表明,车轮试件的磨损量随着轮轨间纵向力的增大而增大;同时磨痕表面伴随着明显的氧化,且随着纵向力的增加,试件磨痕的氧元素含量有增加的趋势;磨痕的表面裂纹数量随着纵向力的增大而增多,但表面裂纹的长度却随之减小。试件在试验过程产生的磨屑均为片层状,其形状大小与试验条件无关,这种片层状的磨屑表明试件磨痕表面的材料损失主要以层离磨损为主。     

高寒地区列车遭遇暖湿气流后轮轨界面黏着与车轮损伤响应行为研究

利用轮轨滚动试验机模拟了-40℃环境工况下不同湿度（10%～99%）暖湿气流对高速轮轨界面黏着与车轮表面损伤的响应行为。低温环境下轮轨界面遭遇暖湿气流时,黏着系数会迅速减小,且随着气流湿度的增大,黏着系数减小的幅度和恢复时间均增加;同时,与未遭遇暖湿的轮轨界面相比,黏着系数、磨损量、塑性变形层厚度均明显增大,且随着气流湿度的增大,平均黏着系数减小,磨损量和塑性变形层厚度增大。在低温无湿气作用工况下,车轮磨损机制主要为疲劳磨损,剖面裂纹以表层裂纹为主;低温间歇暖湿气流作用下,车轮磨损机制主要以氧化磨损和黏着磨损为主,磨损表面出现氧化磨屑堆积而成的第三体层,剖面裂纹出现了多层裂纹和次表层裂纹。低温环境下,暖湿气流对列车的轮轨界面黏着和车轮损伤影响显著,主要体现在黏着系数的瞬时大幅减小以及车轮材料更为严重的磨耗和疲劳损伤。因此,高寒地区应特别注意暖湿气流对列车轮轨损伤和黏着的影响,以保证列车的安全运行。     

硬质合金YG8高速磨削工艺试验研究

采用树脂结合剂金刚石砂轮,对硬质合金YG8进行了高速磨削工艺试验研究,测得了不同砂轮线速度、磨削深度和工作台速度条件下的磨削力和表面粗糙度,并对磨削的表面形貌进行了观测,揭示了硬质合金YG8高速磨削的材料去除机理。试验结果表明:将高速磨削技术应用于硬质合金材料的加工是一种切实可行的加工方法,能得到较好的表面质量并提高加工效率。随着砂轮线速度的增加,或者工作台速度和磨削深度的减小,磨削的最大未变形切屑厚度减小,磨削力减小,材料的比磨削能增加,使得工件的加工表面质量得到改善。     

低温下高速车轮材料滚动磨损与疲劳损伤行为

利用低温环境轮轨磨损模拟试验装置,研究了高速铁路车轮材料在室温及低温环境下的滚动接触疲劳损伤行为。结果表明：低湿度的低温环境导致车轮材料磨损率、塑性变形及疲劳损伤较室温下明显加重。随试验温度的降低,轮轨摩擦因数、磨损率及表面硬度均呈现先急剧上升后轻微下降趋势。室温工况下磨痕表面有严重的犁沟现象,而低温工况下车轮试样表面以疲劳裂纹及剥落损伤为主。随着温度的降低,磨损形式由氧化磨损、磨粒磨损逐渐向疲劳及粘着磨损转变。车轮材料裂纹主要沿较软的铁素体线扩展,室温下剖面损伤较轻微。低温工况下由于车轮材料发生脆化,珠光体呈现不同于室温下的形貌及分布特性。在低温下,表层裂纹扩展角度及次表层裂纹长度增加,同时表层裂纹易于汇合并产生分支。     

INFLUENCE OF WHEEL STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS ON MACHINING ACCURACY OF ULTRA-PRECISION PLANE HONING

A new idea for designing wheel patterns is presented so as to solve the problems about machining accuracy ofworkpiece and wear of honing wheel in ultra-precision plane honing. The influence factors on motion principle and pattern structures are analyzed and optimization machining parameters are obtained. By calculating effective cutting lengthon the surface of workpiece cut by wheel's abrasive and the orbit of one point on the surface of workpiece contactingwith wheel, the wear coefficient of different kinds of wheels and accuracy coefficient of workpiece machined by corresponding wheels are obtained. Furthermore, the simulation results show that the optimal pattern structure of wheel turnsout to have lower wheel wear and higher machining accuracy.     

Parametric tool wear estimation solution of HSC appropriate machining

New strategies are used in manufacturing enterprises due to global competition. High-speed cutting offers a very appropriate opportunity to reduce run times since the high cutting speeds and feed rates involved permit the reduction of production times and minimise rework. There are, however, difficulties in judging tool wear [1]. This paper analyses the formation mechanism of tool wear and presents a complete solution to calculate wear using a ball end cutter for high-speed cutting. Chip geometry generated to calculate tool wear is affected by machining conditions such as turning speed, cutting depth and geometries of tool and work piece which in turn determine the key parameters of chip sections such as length of cut and mean chip thickness. An improved algorithm and a knowledge-based decision model developed to calculate effective tool contact are also discussed to help reduce calculation time and improve calculation efficiency. The calculation results include output form and a 3D wear model showing wear data distributed on the tool contour.     

Wheel speed equilibria in precision contour grinding

In grinding operations, wheel speed significantly affects surface finish and chip thickness. The grinding wheel speed represents an equilibrium condition based upon the energy input by the grinding motor and the energy removed by the grinding process. An analysis of these energy relationships allows prediction of wheel speed and shows how it changes during grinding because of changes in chip geometry. The analysis also reveals that some wheel speeds are energetically preferred. Wheel speed measurements and images of ground surfaces corroborate the analytical predictions. The presence of narrow ranges of preferred wheel speed has implications for selection of grinding conditions and adoption of wheel speed control.     

Case study of surface micro-waves in ultra-precision raster fly cutting

In ultra-precision raster fly cutting (UPRFC), very high frequency microwaves in the range of 3.42 MHz–6.36 MHz are found on the machined surface. This study conducted a series of theoretical and experimental investigations to discover the origin of these microwaves and how they might be suppressed. Research results show that: (i) microwaves on the machined surface are caused by the material sliding during the chip formation in UPRFC; (ii) owing to the inconsistent thickness of chips along their length direction, the microwaves accumulate at the surface-exit in each feed length; and (iii) chip thickness and tool wear change the length and distribution of the microwaves. This research provides a deep insight into the formation of microwaves along with suggestion on how to suppress them.     

Application of Semi-Hertzian Approach to Predict the Dynamic Behavior of Railway Vehicles Through a Wear Evolution Model

Wear prediction due to the wheel-rail interaction in a railway vehicle has a significant role in the view of running stability (critical speed), dynamic performance and maintenance scheduling. In this article, we have focused on the estimation of wear distribution on the wheel profile through co-simulation between the vehicle and the wear evolution models, built in the multi-body simulation (MBS) software ADAMS (VI-Rail) and MATLAB environments, respectively. As the shape of the contact patches varies from elliptical to non-elliptical depending upon the contact patch location on the rail and the wheel, the contact forces/stresses are calculated by using a combined formulation of semi-Hertzian approach with modified FASTSIM. The wear distribution is obtained using Archard’s wear model. The wheel profiles are updated after calculating the wear depth for a particular distance travelled by the vehicle. The dynamic behavior of the vehicle with the worn wheel profile is utilized to predict additional wear during a further fixed distance of travel and this profile updating and dynamic simulation process is repeated. The vehicle’s dynamic performance and passenger comfort are evaluated for various levels of wheel wear.     

Cutting performance of nano-crystalline diamond (NCD) coating in micro-milling of Ti6Al4V alloy

Hard coatings are an important factor affecting the cutting performance of tools. In particular, they directly affect tool life, cutting forces, surface quality and burr formation in the micro-milling process. In this study, the performance of nano-crystalline diamond (NCD) coated tools was evaluated by comparing it with TiN-coated, AlCrN-coated and uncoated carbide tools in micro-milling of Ti₆Al₄V alloy. A series of micro-milling tests was carried out to determine the effects of coating type and machining conditions on tool wear, cutting force, surface roughness and burr size. Flat end-mill tools with two flutes and a diameter of 0.5 mm were used in the micro-milling process. The minimum chip thickness depending on both the cutting force and the surface roughness were determined. The results showed that the minimum chip thickness is about 0.3 times that of the cutter corner radius for Ti₆Al₄V alloy and changes very little with coating type. It was observed from wear tests that the dominant wear mechanism was abrasion. Maximum wear occurred on NCD-coated and uncoated tools. In addition, maximum burr size was obtained in the cutting process with the uncoated tool.