Optimization of wind farm turbines layout using an evolutive algorithm

The optimum wind farm configuration problem is discussed in this paper and an evolutive algorithm to optimize the wind farm layout is proposed. The algorithm's optimization process is based on a global wind farm cost model using the initial investment and the present value of the yearly net cash flow during the entire wind-farm life span. The proposed algorithm calculates the yearly income due to the sale of the net generated energy taking into account the individual wind turbine loss of production due to wake decay effects and it can deal with areas or terrains with non-uniform load-bearing capacity soil and different roughness length for every wind direction or restrictions such as forbidden areas or limitations in the number of wind turbines or the investment. The results are first favorably compared with those previously published and a second collection of test cases is used to proof the performance and suitability of the proposed evolutive algorithm to find the optimum wind farm configuration.     

Policies and design elements for the repowering of wind farms: A qualitative analysis of different options

Repowering of a wind farm is the process of replacing existing wind turbines with new turbines that either have a larger nameplate capacity or more efficiency, resulting in a net increase of the power generated. Although repowering brings, both, social and private benefits, there are also several obstacles to repowering which justify public support. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview and a qualitative analysis of instruments and design options to support repowering of on-shore wind farms. The multicriteria analysis carried out in this paper shows that all instruments have their advantages and drawbacks. However, feed-in tariffs and investment subsidies seem to be particularly appropriate instruments in this regard. Furthermore, we provide an assessment of different design options to promote repowering according to key assessment criteria. The relevance of design elements hinges on the fact that these are the ones directly affecting the variables that are relevant in the decision to repower (capacity factors and investment costs).     

Multidisciplinary design optimization of offshore wind turbines for minimum levelized cost of energy

This paper presents a method for multidisciplinary design optimization of offshore wind turbines at system level. The formulation and implementation that enable the integrated aerodynamic and structural design of the rotor and tower simultaneously are detailed. The objective function to be minimized is the levelized cost of energy. The model includes various design constraints: stresses, deflections, modal frequencies and fatigue limits along different stations of the blade and tower. The rotor design variables are: chord and twist distribution, blade length, rated rotational speed and structural thicknesses along the span. The tower design variables are: tower thickness and diameter distribution, as well as the tower height. For the other wind turbine components, a representative mass model is used to include their dynamic interactions in the system. To calculate the system costs, representative cost models of a wind turbine located in an offshore wind farm are used. To show the potential of the method and to verify its usefulness, the 5 MW NREL wind turbine is used as a case study. The result of the design optimization process shows 2.3% decrease in the levelized cost of energy for a representative Dutch site, while satisfying all the design constraints.     

Maximizing the returns of LIDAR systems in wind farms for yaw error correction applications

Wind energy is an important source of renewable energy with significant untapped potential around the world. However, the cost of wind energy production is high, and efforts to lower the cost of energy generation will help enable more widespread use of wind energy. Yaw error reduces the efficiency of turbines as well as lowers the reliability of key components in turbines. Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) devices can correct the yaw error; however, they are expensive, and there is a trade‐off between their costs and benefits. In this study, a stochastic discrete‐event simulation was developed that models the operation of a wind farm. We maximize the net present value (NPV) changes associated with using LIDAR devices in a wind farm and determine the optimum number of LIDAR devices and their associated turbine stay time as a function of number of turbines in the wind farm for specific turbine sizes. The outcome of this work will help wind farm owners and operators make informed decisions about purchasing LIDAR devices for their wind farms.     

Development of a viability assessment model for hydrogen production from dedicated offshore wind farms

Dedicated offshore wind farms for hydrogen production are a promising option to unlock the full potential of offshore wind energy, attain decarbonisation and energy security targets in electricity and other sectors, and cope with grid expansion constraints. Current knowledge on these systems is limited, particularly the economic aspects. Therefore, a new, integrated and analytical model for viability assessment of hydrogen production from dedicated offshore wind farms is developed in this paper. This includes the formulae for calculating wind power output, electrolysis plant size, and hydrogen production from time-varying wind speed. All the costs are projected to a specified time using both Discounted Payback (DPB) and Net Present Value (NPV) to consider the value of capital over time. A case study considers a hypothetical wind farm of 101.3 MW situated in a potential offshore wind development pipeline off the East Coast of Ireland. All the costs of the wind farm and the electrolysis plant are for 2030, based on reference costs in the literature. Proton exchange membrane electrolysers and underground storage of hydrogen are used. The analysis shows that the DPB and NPV flows for several scenarios of storage are in good agreement and that the viability model performs well. The offshore wind farm – hydrogen production system is found to be profitable in 2030 at a hydrogen price of €5/kg and underground storage capacities ranging from 2 days to 45 days of hydrogen production. The model is helpful for rapid assessment or optimisation of both economics and feasibility of dedicated offshore wind farm – hydrogen production systems.     

Optimization of turbine design in wind farms with multiple hub heights,using exact analytic gradients and structural constraints

Wind farms are generally designed with turbines of all the same hub height. If wind farms were designed with turbines of different hub heights, wake interference between turbines could be reduced, lowering the cost of energy (COE). This paper demonstrates a method to optimize onshore wind farms with two different hub heights using exact, analytic gradients. Gradient‐based optimization with exact gradients scales well with large problems and is preferable in this application over gradient‐free methods. Our model consisted of the following: a version of the FLOw Redirection and Induction in Steady‐State wake model that accommodated three‐dimensional wakes and calculated annual energy production, a wind farm cost model, and a tower structural model, which provided constraints during optimization. Structural constraints were important to keep tower heights realistic and account for additional mass required from taller towers and higher wind speeds. We optimized several wind farms with tower height, diameter, and shell thickness as coupled design variables. Our results indicate that wind farms with small rotors, low wind shear, and closely spaced turbines can benefit from having two different hub heights. A nine‐by‐nine grid wind farm with 70‐meter rotor diameters and a wind shear exponent of 0.08 realized a 4.9% reduction in COE by using two different tower sizes. If the turbine spacing was reduced to 3 diameters, the reduction in COE decreased further to 11.2%. Allowing for more than two different turbine heights is only slightly more beneficial than two heights and is likely not worth the added complexity.     

Influence of Tower Shadow and Wind Turbulence on the Performance of Power System Stabilizers for DFIG-Based Wind Farms

The aim of the paper is to demonstrate the way in which mechanical power variations, due to tower shadow and wind turbulence, influence control performance of power system stabilizer (PSS) loops for doubly-fed induction generators (DFIGs). The PSS auxiliary loops are applied on a specific DFIG control scheme, the flux magnitude and angle controller (FMAC). However, since the PSS signal is applied at the output of the basic controller, the PSS performance characteristics displayed are deemed typical for DFIG control schemes in general. The relative capabilities of PSS controllers based on stator power, rotor speed, and network frequency, when the DFIG turbine is subjected to aerodynamic torque variations, are investigated via simulation studies. A two-generator aggregate model of a wind farm is introduced, which enables the influence of tower shadow and wind turbulence on both an individual turbine and on the overall wind farm itself to be assessed.     

基于XGBoost和Wasserstein距离的风电机组塔架振动监测研究

针对风电机组塔架振动监测问题,考虑到风能脉动与机组控制动作等激励对塔架振动的影响,提出一种基于数据驱动的塔架振动监测方法。首先基于K-均值算法对风电机组工况进行辨识,分析各状态参量、机组工况对塔架振动的影响;其次基于极限梯度提升（XGBoost）算法对不同工况下的塔架振动趋势进行建模预测,针对同一风电场不同塔架振动预测残差的差异,提出一种基于Wasserstein距离的塔架振动监测方法;最后使用风电场实际数据验证,以误差平方和为评价指标,考虑机组工况条件的XGBoost预测精度提高了34.6%。基于数据驱动的方法能有效识别风电场中异常振动较频繁的塔架,提升了运维效率。     

Multi-criteria decision making on strategic selection of wind farms

With maturity of advanced technologies and urgent requirement for maintaining a healthy environment with reasonable price, China is moving toward a trend of generating electricity from renewable wind resources. How to select a suitable wind farm becomes an important focus for stakeholders. This paper first briefly introduces wind farm and then develops its critical success criteria. A new multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) model, based on the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) associated with benefits, opportunities, costs and risks (BOCR), is proposed to help select a suitable wind farm project. Multiple factors that affect the success of wind farm operations are analyzed by taking into account experts' opinions, and a performance ranking of the wind farms is generated.     

测风塔选址对复杂地形风电场风资源评估的影响

为研究复杂地形条件下风电场测风塔的代表性及其对风资源评估的影响,以陕西省靖边县境内某风电场为例,选取3座测风塔资料,利用WindSim软件模拟分析了2011年风电场风能资源分布,并估算了风电场年发电量。结果表明,复杂地形风电场处测风塔数量较少时风资源评估结果的不确定性显著增加,而在考虑地形因素情况下测风塔数量增多,估算发电量更为准确。在地形较为复杂的风电场应根据地形条件布设适当数量测风塔,以得到风电场内较为精准的风资源分布,减少因测风塔位置选择而造成的风资源评估的不确定性。     

钢-混凝土组合式风力发电塔架地震响应分析

钢-混凝土组合式风力发电塔架上部为钢塔筒,下部为混凝土塔筒,高度方向具有较大的质量和刚度突变,其在地震作用下的响应和传统单管式钢塔架显著不同.利用ABAQUS对同一风电场的2.0 MW单管式钢塔架和组合式塔架建立精细化模型,选取3种场地条件,采用振型分解反应谱法计算2种塔架的地震响应并进行对比.针对3种场地条件,选取相...     

Optimisation of electrical system for offshore wind farms via genetic algorithm

An optimisation platform based on genetic algorithm (GA) is presented, where the main components of a wind farm and key technical specifications are used as input parameters and the electrical system design of the wind farm is optimised in terms of both production cost and system reliability. The power losses, wind power production, initial investment and maintenance costs are considered in the production cost. The availability of components and network redundancy are included in the reliability evaluation. The method of coding an electrical system to a binary string, which is processed by GA, is developed. Different GA techniques are investigated based on a real example offshore wind farm. This optimisation platform has been demonstrated as a powerful tool for offshore wind farm design and evaluation.     

Technoeconomic study for the optimization of turbine size and wind farm layouts

A technoeconomic analysis and optimization of wind turbine size and layout are performed using WAsP software. A case study of a 100‐MW wind farm located in Egypt is considered. Wind atlas for Egypt was used as the input data of the WAsP software. Two turbine models of powers 52 and 80 MW are considered for this project. The wind turbine size and distributions are selected based on the technoeconomic optimization, namely minimum wake effect, maximum annual energy production (AEP) rate, optimum cash flow, and payback period. The future worth method is adopted in economic comparison between the two alternatives, and the cash flow diagram provided the payback period and future worth after the lifetime of the plant. The results showed that (1) the AEP dramatically decreases for a wind farm area less than 15 km²; (2) the turbine spacing, spacing‐to‐diameter ratio, and the setback distances decrease and the wind turbine density and wake losses increase with decreasing the wind turbines size; (3) the total net AEP using G52 is lower than that of using G80 by about 16%; (4) the technoeconomic analysis recommended using G80 as it has higher profit than those of G52 by about $20 million.     

不同类型漂浮式风电场内机组塔基载荷研究

构建基于NREL 5 MW 风电机组的海上固定式风电场和不同类型的漂浮式风电场,考虑不同类型风电机组尾流特性、平台漂浮特性的差异,在不同工况下对风电场内机组动力学响应进行仿真计算。通过时域分析与箱线图分析,对风电场内各位置处机组在风、浪、尾流联合作用下的塔基载荷进行对比研究。结果表明：在相同工况下,Spar式风电场内机组风轮与平台位移值、塔基载荷在来流方向上最大;在中低风速下,风电场内机组塔基载荷相差较大;高风速时,塔基载荷相近;随着风速的增大,漂浮式机组塔基载荷呈先增大后减小的规律。     

Life cycle simulation-based economic and risk assessment of biomass-based fuel ethanol (BFE) projects in different feedstock planting areas

Increasing attention is being paid to biomass-based fuel ethanol (BFE) for its contributions to moderating oil crisis, reducing environmental impact, and promoting local economy. This paper aims to assess and compare the economic viabilities and investment risks of three BFE projects in different feedstock planting areas in China. Internal cost models of wheat-based fuel ethanol (WFE) in Central China, corn-based fuel ethanol (CFE) in Northeast China, and cassava-based fuel ethanol (KFE) in Southwest China are developed. The projects’ net cash flow (NCF) and net present values (NPV) are pursued by internal cost model simulation with the Monte Carlo method. According to the simulation results, KFE project is economically viable for its positive expected NPV and its expected internal rate of return (IRR) (12%), while CFE and WFE are not economically viable for their negative expected NPVs. Sensitivity analysis is performed to find out the key determinants of the projects’ expected NPVs and to evaluate their future economic viabilities. The analysis results indicate that CFE has better potential to become economically viable comparing to WFE project. Possible measures to improve the expected NPV of CFE are then proposed.     

Guidelines for assessment of investment cost for offshore wind generation

Offshore wind generation represents a key element for development of renewable energy, thanks to higher availability of energy source and lower presence of constraints. However, the feasibility of offshore wind farms has to be carefully evaluated, due to remarkable economical efforts required. In this paper, economic issues concerning costs in pre-investment and investment stages for offshore wind farms exploiting alternating-current transmission system are analysed. Single cost centres are detailed, taking into account technical features and current equipment exploitation. The aim is to formulate a general model to evaluate the total investment depending on wind farm layout. The model is employed to determine the most suitable connection solution for a 150-MW test wind farm, accounting for different connection schemes and the presence of an offshore or onshore substation. Further tests are run to evaluate cost variation for larger wind farms with different nominal voltage levels.     

HVDC Connection of Offshore Wind Farms to the Transmission System

This paper presents a technical and economic analysis to evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of grid connecting offshore wind farms through a dc link. A first case, concerning a 100-MW wind farm, is thoroughly investigated and cases of larger wind farms (200 and 500 MW) are presented. Three different transmission solutions are compared: 150-kV ac, 400-kV ac, and high-voltage dc based on voltage sourced converters (VSC-HVDC). After a brief overview of the features of these connection solutions, the related operational aspects are evaluated. An economic assessment compares the dc connection option to the ac alternatives, taking into account the investment, operation, and maintenance costs, and the negative valorization of losses and energy not supplied. Economic assessment includes sensitivity analyses of parameters, which could impact the 100-MW wind farm: distance, component costs, dc converter reliability, and dc converter losses     

Development of a modified stochastic subspace identification method for rapid structural assessment of in‐service utility‐scale wind turbine towers

The strong drive to harness wind energy has recently led to rapid growth of wind farm construction. Wind turbine towers with increased sizes and flexibility experience large vibrations. Structural health monitoring of wind turbines is proposed in the wind energy industry to ensure their proper performance and save maintenance costs. This study proposes a system identification method for vibration‐based structural assessment of wind turbine towers. This method developed based on the stochastic subspace identification method can identify modal parameters of structures in operating conditions with harmonic components in excitations. It benefits wind turbine tower structural health assessment because classical operational modal analysis methods can fail as periodic rotation excitation from a turbine introduces harmonic disturbance to tower structure response data. The effectiveness, accuracy and robustness of the proposed method were numerically investigated and verified through a lumped‐mass system model. The method was then applied to an in‐service utility‐scale wind turbine tower. The field testing campaign and modal parameter identification as well as structural assessment results were presented. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Overall Optimization for Offshore Wind Farm Electrical System

Based on particle swarm optimization (PSO), an optimization platform for offshore wind farm electrical system (OWFES) is proposed in this paper, where the main components of an offshore wind farm and key technical constraints are considered as input parameters. The offshore wind farm electrical system is optimized in accordance with initial investment by considering three aspects: the number and siting of offshore substations (OS), the cable connection layout of both collection system (CS) and transmission system (TS) as well as the selection of electrical components in terms of voltage level and capacity. Because hundreds of optimization variables, continuous or discrete, are involved in the problem, a mix integer PSO (MIPSO) is required to obtain the solution. The fuzzy C‐means clustering (FCM) algorithm is used to partition the wind farm into several sub regions. The collection system layout in each sub region as well as the connection scheme between offshore substations are optimized by an adaptive PSO‐minimum spanning tree algorithm (APSO‐MST) which has been proposed in a previous work. The simulation results show that the proposed optimization platform can find an optimized layout that save 3.01% total cost compared with the industrial layout, and can be a useful tool for OWFES design and evaluation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

热电联产机组储热罐最佳容量的确定方法

为解决“风热冲突”下储热罐的容量选择问题,以热电联产机组整个采暖期为研究对象,引入特征日概念,对配置储热罐后的热电机组建立了逐小时的运行模型。分别以机组深度调峰空间的增量、全年总收益和10年净现值为目标函数,寻找储热罐容量的最优值。结果表明,热负荷越高储热罐的最佳容量也越大,同时机组配置储热罐后所能获得的深度调峰空间也越大;不考虑初投资时,以全年总收益为目标的储热罐最优容量约为820 MW;在考虑初投资后,以10年净现值为目标的储热罐最优容量约为430 MW,容量几乎减半。