Emergence and Role of Cultural Boundary Spanners in Global Engineering Project Networks

Engineering project networks are increasingly global in scope and outsourcing is increasingly common. Along with globalizing trends in project delivery, the workforce is also globalizing. It is common for engineers to move to other countries as expatriate workers or as emigrants to pursue job opportunities in other firms. Where much is known about global networks of engineers collaborating on projects, little is known about the mediating role played by individuals that share the same nationality as an international partner on a project. In this paper, we examine two project teams executing complex, reciprocally interdependent design projects in India. One team was comprised of Indians and Americans. The other team was identical, but also contained an Indian national who had studied and worked in the United States. Both teams worked on similar design schedule optimization problems. Over the duration of three days, we examined the interactions of the teams assembled to finalize their designs. Through quantitative network analysis and qualitative observations of the cross-cultural interactions, we found the Indian expatriate to play a cultural boundary spanning role resolving cross-cultural knowledge system conflicts and increasing collaboration effectiveness. We induce a propositional theoretical model of cultural boundary spanning in global engineering project networks.     

Examining the Relationship between Organizational Learning Styles and Project Performance

A review of literature on organizational learning suggested that organizations mainly exhibit three types of learning styles: single-loop learning (SLL), double-loop learning (DLL), and deutero learning (DeuL). SLL refers to the detection and correction of errors without adjusting one’s underpinning assumptions about performance requirements. DLL refers to improvement actions which are undertaken in response to the change of one’s underpinning assumptions. DeuL refers to the establishment of a system which propels continuous learning. It has been advocated that effectuating these learning styles are critical for attaining continuous project performance improvement. This paper reports a study that aimed to examine the relationship between organizational learning styles and performance improvement in construction projects. A conceptual model for the same was first developed. Data about the contracting organizations’ practice of learning styles and project performance were collected through a questionnaire survey. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the significance of the relationship between organizational learning styles and project performance improvement. It was found that the attainment of project performance improvement was positively related to the practice of DLL. Further, DeuL was found essential for facilitating the practice of SLL and DLL.     

Organizational Culture and Knowledge Management Success at Project and Organizational Levels in Contracting Firms

This research focuses on contracting firms within the construction sector. It characterizes and evaluates the composition of organizational culture using four culture types (clan, adhocracy, market, and hierarchy), the strategic approach for knowledge flow, and the success of knowledge management (KM) systems at different hierarchical levels of contracting organizations (project and parent organization level). Responses from managers of local or overseas contracting firms operating in Hong Kong were collected using a carefully constructed questionnaire survey that was distributed through electronic mail. The organizational value is analyzed in terms of the four cultural models. Clan culture is found to be the most popular at both project and organization levels, which means that the culture of contracting firms very much depends on honest communication, respect for people, trust, and cohesive relationships. On the other hand, hierarchy culture, which focuses on stability and continuity, and analysis and control, seems to be the least favored at both levels. Another significant finding was that the two main KM strategies for knowledge flow, codification and personalization, were employed at both project and organization levels in equal proportion. This indicates that successful KM efforts at both enterprise levels utilize a hybrid and balanced approach for their knowledge flow, and that they complement each other. The findings also revealed that knowledge management system success factors emphasize the support of the management level. The results show that KM is critical and beneficial as indicated by 64% at the project and 74% at the organization level. The expectation is higher for organizations as they are the organizational memories in which experiences of past projects are archived and connected. Understanding these factors and the relationships among them has been demonstrated to be critical in order to increase the chances of success or to help with making decisions when applying KM.     

Designing Project Organizations: An Expanded Process

To the traditional elements of structure, expanded views of organization add means of coordination, location of decision‐making, and requirements for positions. This paper describes these expanded views of organization, illustrates significant diversity in organization structure with data from eight industrial projects, and develops a method for practical application of expanded views in the systematic design of project organization structures. The conclusions highlight the benefits of designing an organization rather than letting it evolve.     

Positive Psychological Capital as a Source of Sustainable Competitive Advantage for Organizations

Psychological capital (PsyCap) has gained prominence as an important construct in leadership research. Comprising four factors (self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resiliency), PsyCap is considered to be a vital factor for authentic leadership development and influence. The current study reports the results of a questionnaire survey that was conducted in the construction industry of Singapore. The survey explored the correlations of PsyCap with authenticity, leadership, and leadership outcomes. The results show that PsyCap significantly correlates with authenticity and transformational leadership. It was also found that transformational leadership plays a mediating role for PsyCap to predict leadership outcomes (effectiveness, extra effort, and satisfaction). The discussion in the paper also considers the implications of PsyCap for leadership development and effectiveness in general and in the context of the construction industry.     

Simulating Learning Dynamics in Project Networks

In this paper we develop a multiagent simulation model to explore the impact of learning dynamics on the productive implementation of innovations in project networks comprised of designers and contractors. Though researchers generally agree that when firms form into networks they will gain access to new knowledge, the question of learning beyond the firm at the boundaries between firms or at the level of the project network itself remain less explored. We simulate the impact of task interdependence and relational instability on learning in project networks comprised of multiple specialist firms. We find that relational instability in project networks slows learning and task interdependence moderates the impact of increasing relational instability on network productivity rates. The findings have significant implications for interorganizational learning theory. The simulation results provide insights into appropriate firm-level and project network-level strategies for change.     

Mobilizing Institutional Knowledge for International Projects

Multinational engineering consultants, contractors, and real estate developers work on projects in various countries, encountering many challenges that arise from cross-national differences. These projects frequently bring together diverse participants in an unfamiliar environment. In these situations, firms are exposed to different “institutions”—regulations, norms, and cognitive-cultural beliefs—that can increase misunderstandings, delays, and costs. Knowledge of these institutional elements is critical to create a project that is both locally sustainable and profitable for the firm. Departing from institutional theory and the knowledge-based view of the firm, we conduct exploratory research based on interviews from informants in 15 firms to identify the methods that multinational real estate developers, contractors, and engineers use to transfer and mobilize institutional knowledge for their global projects. We contribute to theory by adding to the developing literature that uses institutional theory to examine differences on global projects and by analyzing the specific methods firms use to transfer institutional knowledge internally, across projects and divisions. Ultimately, this research, combined with the work of others, can develop new processes for firms engaged in international projects to enhance their mobilization of institutional knowledge, and thereby improve the outcomes of international projects.     

Master Builder Project Delivery System and Designer Construction Knowledge

The master builder system for designing and building construction projects was the dominant project delivery system in the construction industry during the early part of the 20th century. Master builders were generally charged with both design and construction services for a project. During the last half of the 20th century, many different systems for project delivery with fragmented responsibilities have replaced the master builder system. Reducing the use of the master builder system has led to the creation of elaborate systems for managing projects in the construction industry. In order to investigate the use of the master builder delivery system and other systems, a research project was conducted that included reviewing (1) the history of the construction industry, (2) project delivery systems, (3) constructability issues, (4) construction industry fragmentation, (5) the results of a survey of architecture, engineering, and construction professionals from the San Francisco Bay Area in California on the current processes they use for training engineers and architects, (6) an analysis of the survey results, (7) construction industry recommendations, and (8) conclusions based on the survey results and analysis. The information obtained from the research project, including the survey and an analysis of the results, is included in this document. The results of the research indicate that reduction in the use of the master builder project delivery system and the rise of numerous fragmented delivery systems have limited the designer’s knowledge of construction processes.     

Applying Concept Similarity to the Evaluation of Common Understanding in Multidisciplinary Learning

The success of an architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) project largely depends on the effective collaboration of project participants. This characteristic of the industry requires that AEC education shall foster multidisciplinary collaboration skills of students. On the other hand, many AEC education programs have started using information and communication technologies (ICTs) to facilitate teaching and learning such as distance learning. One of the challenges in a computer-mediated learning environment arises from the need for computer systems to determine whether a common understanding regarding a certain subject is established among a group of students. To achieve this goal, ICT needs to be able to detect changes in the knowledge structure of students in order to provide better mediation. This paper presents a study on the development of a concept similarity measure that has less computational complexity than graph-based similarity analyses. The similarity measure is intended to determine the similarity of multiple knowledge structures [e.g., concept maps (CMAPs)] of students. The concept similarity measure is developed based on the feature-based method in which propositions associated with a concept are considered as features of the concept. Therefore, the similarity of concepts can be measured by comparing the propositions of the concepts. In addition, since concepts are the key component of a knowledge structure, the common understanding of students can be determined by measuring the similarity of concepts in the knowledge structure of the students. The proposed measure is evaluated by (1) comparing it with the Dice coefficient for analyzing two sets of concepts; (2) analyzing its performance in a generic case of four CMAPs; and (3) applying it to a case using “photovoltaic system” as an example. In this case, results are intuitively obvious so that calculation results can be corroborated by human judgment. Finally, the concept similarity measure is applied to derive the similarity of CMAPs in the case study. Based on the initial evaluations, this study shows that the proposed measure has demonstrated promising features for determining the similarity of multiple knowledge structures or the common understanding of students. However, when the number of knowledge structures increases, concept similarity analyses become more complicated because uncertain situations arise due to ambiguous human perception to propositions that are shared by multiple concepts. Future research is thus needed to understand and clearly define concept similarity in those situations. In addition, other studies are also identified for future research.     

Ontology-Centered Knowledge Management Using Information Retrieval Techniques

The paper argues that an effective solution to information and knowledge management (KM) needs of practitioners in the construction industry can be found in the provision of an adapted knowledge environment that makes use of user profiling and document summarization techniques based on information retrieval sciences. The conceptualization of the domain through ontology takes a pivotal role in the proposed knowledge environment and provides a semantic referential to ensure relevance, accuracy, and completeness of information. A set of KM services articulated around the selected ontology have been developed, using the Web services model, tested, and validated in real organizational settings. This provided the basis for formulating recommendations and key success factors for any KM project development.     

Project Network Interdependency Alignment: New Approach to Assessing Project Effectiveness

The engineering and construction industry has evolved to a task-centric approach to evaluating the effectiveness of projects. However, a narrow task-based view of project network logic neglects the coordination of communication and knowledge exchanges across the project organizational network. This paper departs from traditional approaches to introduce a new approach to assessing project effectiveness that focuses on alignment of actual knowledge exchanges with knowledge exchange requirements across task-organization network dyads. A new modeling approach is introduced, called Project Network Interdependency Alignment. Project Network Interdependency Alignment identifies potentially excessive or insufficient communication and knowledge exchanges that can make projects ineffective. The modeling approach is introduced and retrospectively validated by using a building renovation construction project. The case study demonstrates that the approach can provide project managers with the capacity to analyze task and organizational network interdependence on projects and the critical capability to identify misalignments that impede project effectiveness.     

Evaluation of Knowledge Representation Schemes as a Prerequisite toward Development of a Knowledge-Based System

In developing a knowledge-based system, it is crucial to use an appropriate knowledge representation scheme (KRS) for efficient working of the developed system. However, it is difficult to select an appropriate KRS due to lack of a generalized method of comparison among the variety of schemes available. The objective of this paper is to discuss a generalized method for comparative evaluation of KRS, based on criteria of expressiveness and performance. The discussed method has been implemented for evaluation of four widely used KRSs: rule-based model, object-based model, relational model, and hybrid model. Evaluation is being carried out using a knowledge base for zonation of landslide hazard. Based on the criteria of expressiveness and performance, it has been found that hybrid-based KRS is best for representation of the domain knowledge available in the Indian Standard Code 14496-1998 (Part-II).     

Capturing Knowledge in Construction Projects: Knowledge Platform for Contractors

Managing knowledge effectively is critical to the survival and advance of a company, especially in project-based industries such as construction. However, capturing knowledge in construction projects is a tedious task, as knowledge is usually experience based, tacit, and hard to pass on to others. In this study, a survey was carried out among eight leading Turkish construction contractors that are operating within the international construction market. The specific objectives of this survey are to find out how the tacit and explicit knowledge are captured, stored, shared, and used in forthcoming projects, as well as major drivers and barriers for knowledge management. Based on the survey, it was determined that most of these firms do not have a knowledge management strategy and a systematic way of capturing and storing tacit knowledge. A conceptual framework is proposed to formalize the knowledge-capturing process within construction companies. To demonstrate how the conceptual framework can be implemented in practice, a Web-based system, namely, Knowledge Platform for Contractors (KPfC) is presented. It is hypothesized that KPfC can be used to manage both tacit and explicit knowledge effectively in construction projects.     

Domain Taxonomy for Construction Concepts: Toward a Formal Ontology for Construction Knowledge

With the advancement of the semantic web, the construction industry is at a stage where intelligent knowledge management systems can be used. Such systems support more effective collaboration, where virtual teams of skilled users, not software, exchange ideas, decisions, and best practice. To achieve that, there is a need to create consistent semantic representation of construction knowledge. Existing representations, in the form of classification systems and product data models, lack effective modeling of concept semantics—a fundamental requirement for human-based exchange of knowledge. Toward this objective, this paper presents a domain taxonomy that was developed as part of the e-COGNOS project. The taxonomy was developed as a first step in the establishment of domain ontology for construction. The taxonomy was developed to be process-centered and to allow for utilization of already existing classification systems (BS6100, Master Format, and UniClass, for example). The taxonomy uses seven major domains to classify construction concepts: Process, Product, Project, Actor, Resource, Technical Topics, and Systems. The taxonomy was developed and validated through extensive interaction with domain experts. The taxonomy was used to develop a prototype ontology for the construction domain including semantic relationships and axioms. The ontology was used to support several applications in semantic knowledge management as part of the e-COGNOS portal, including semantic indexing and retrieval of information and ontology-based collaborative project development.     

Social Network Model of Construction

Engineering and construction projects are dependent on two fundamental elements: (1) the ability to plan and manage the technical components of the project such as the tasks and resources; and (2) the ability of the project participants to effectively develop into a high performance team. Historically, the industry has focused extensively on optimizing the project management processes associated with the former element. In this focus, organizations have emphasized the ability to develop the optimum plan, allocate resources efficiently, and utilize control functions to ensure that the project stays on schedule and within budget. Although this has been effective, this engineering focus has reached the point of diminishing results. Specifically, the engineering approach to project management has neglected to recognize the importance of the participants to the success of the overall project. Rather, the engineering approach has favored the development of an optimum plan as the path to effective project management. In this paper, the engineering-based approach to project success is reconfigured to reemphasize the need to develop high performing teams by recognizing the importance of the project network. This recognition is formalized in the social network model of construction that integrates classic project management concepts with social science variables to enhance the focus on knowledge sharing as the foundation for achieving high performance teams and project results.     

Global Dimension of Robust Project Network Design

Managing the increased complexity, emerging uncertainties, and diversity of cultures on global projects is creating significant challenges for architecture, engineering, and construction firms. In global projects, differences in “institutions”—including language, beliefs, values, group norms, work practices, professional roles, industry organizations, and legal frameworks—among team members from different national backgrounds can lead to misunderstanding and conflicts that cause delays, increase costs, and reduce quality. Previous research has examined risk factors associated with international project execution. However, little research to date has explored whether reconfiguring project networks might mitigate such risks. Project organizational simulation tools have been combined with “robust design” experimental techniques to design robust project networks that can perform reliably in uncertain conditions. This paper extends project network design research to examine whether robust designs for given project networks differ between “domestic” and “global” projects, given differing organizational uncertainties. The results demonstrate that robust project network designs may differ for global project networks. This finding has significant implications for the design of project networks in an industry where firm participation in global project networks is increasing, both domestically and abroad.     

Empirical Assessment of Internationalization Strategies for Small and Medium Construction Companies

In the wake of increased globalization, more small and medium construction companies (SMCCs) are expanding into the global market. However, the international construction industry is different from the domestic with respect to resource, regulations, culture, entry strategies, and risk levels among other factors. This paper explores various ways and modes of internationalization for SMCCs under 13 key hypotheses that are relevant to the issues of internationalization from the perspective of SMCCs. To verify these hypotheses, this study used actual data from 560 cases of SMCCs’ overseas projects performed between 1990 and 2007. It was found that SMCCs’ entry scheme as prime contractors was more rewarding than in the case of subcontractors. Moreover, SMCCs are likely to evolve from subcontractors engaged with home-country contractors to subcontractors engaged with foreign contractors. Also, cultural distance is positively related to performance, but the effects of cultural properties are not as strong compared to the international manufacturing industry. The results are expected to help SMCCs build internationalization strategies by determining promising entry modes, proposing possible evolutionary paths to enter overseas projects, and assessing cultural effects in reference to SMCCs’ successful performance.     

Development of a Methodology for Live Capture and Reuse of Project Knowledge in Construction

The efforts to share and reuse knowledge generated on construction projects are undermined mainly by the loss of important insights and knowledge due to the time lapse in capturing the knowledge, staff turnover, and people’s reluctance to share knowledge. To address this, it is crucial for knowledge to be captured “live” in a collaborative environment while the project is being executed and presented in a format that will facilitate its reuse during and after the project. This paper uses a case study approach to investigate the end-users’ requirements for a methodology for the live capture and reuse of knowledge, and the shortcomings of current practice in meeting these requirements. A methodology for the live capture and reuse of project knowledge is then presented and discussed. The methodology, which comprises a web-based knowledge base, an integrated work-flow system and a project knowledge manager as the administrator, allows project knowledge to be captured live from ongoing projects. This also incorporates mechanisms to hasten knowledge validation and the dissemination of the knowledge once it has been validated.     

Antecedents of Successful Three-Dimensional Computer-Aided Design Implementation in Design and Construction Networks

Researchers find that the successful implementation of information systems that span organizational boundaries enhances competitive advantage. However, the process by which networks of design and construction firms implement boundary-spanning technological changes remains poorly understood. In this paper I explore the implementation of three-dimensional computer-aided design tools in 26 design and construction organizations. I analyze empirical data collected over a 7-month period to induce a set of antecedent constructs that enable the evolution from “printed sets of plans” to “virtual model” boundary objects. The findings highlight the importance of addressing regulative, technological, work, and organizational issues at the interfaces between design and construction firms when implementing boundary-spanning technological changes.