Sustainable Groundwater Allocation in the Great Lakes Basin

Outdated groundwater allocation policies have resulted in unrestrained abstraction of groundwater in the Great Lakes Basin. Continuing on this course will lead to more frequent conflicts and further degradation of the Basin's ecosystem. Alternative approaches must focus on achieving sustainable groundwater allocation. The authors present two alternative institutions, local collaborative planning for groundwater allocation, and a regional watershed board. Collaborative institutions responsible for local groundwater planning should be established according to practical geographical units, have access to sound scientific information, utilize adaptive management and engage in open deliberation. The regional watershed board should establish a comprehensive and unified inventory of all groundwater resources in the Basin, designate critical groundwater areas, monitor groundwater management by respective jurisdictions, and make recommendations on best practices.     

Building a CSMI database: Experiences from the Lake Ontario 2018 CSMI Field Year

The Cooperative Science and Monitoring Initiative (CSMI) instituted under the Science Annex of the 2012 Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) provides an international framework to coordinate science and monitoring activities in one of the five Great Lakes. On a five-year cycle: (Y1) CSMI priorities are developed under GLWQA Annex 2 Lake Partnerships with input from managers, researchers, and other stakeholders, (Y2) projects are then planned to address those priorities, (Y3) projects are implemented during the field sampling year, (Y4) samples are analyzed, and (Y5) results are shared through reporting. Although CSMI has advanced understanding and management of the Great Lakes, such large-scale studies present unique logistical challenges. Specifically, there is a need to promote and enhance data management, coordination, and sharing efforts. Herein, we describe the process used to develop a database for the 2018 Lake Ontario Field Year and explore the challenges, successes, and lessons learned that could improve collaboration and data compilation in future CSMI cycles. The creation of an accessible and transparent database can encourage collaboration between researchers and scientists, provide insight into the state and health of Lake Ontario, and engage the public as to why monitoring the Great Lakes is so crucial. We suggest the following recommendations to be implemented in future CSMI database iterations: 1) early planning of the database development, 2) house the database in a centralized location with emphasis on metadata, 3) encourage development of summary products for various user groups, and 4) sustained collaboration and commitment on database requirements.     

An appraisal of policy implementation deficits in the Great Lakes

Understanding of the complexities of both public policy implementation and Great Lakes restoration has grown in sophistication since the 1970s. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement is the principal policy for reversing environmental decline in the region. Implementation of this and related policies, particularly by the federal governments, suffers from acute and chronic deficits that we summarily document. These policy implementation deficits will continue to frustrate efforts to revitalize the Great Lakes unless significant advances are made to design governance processes within the Great Lakes regime that accommodate the complexity of linked social and ecological systems. The 2010-2011 governmental process to renegotiate the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement is a potent opportunity to begin to overcome institutional barriers to reducing policy deficits. We argue that the renegotiation must begin a reinvestment in remaking or reimagining Great Lakes institutions in a way that restores capacity, flexibility, and moral authority. Our purpose is to help provide a foundation for that discussion.     

Renovation and Innovation: It’s Time for the Great Lakes Regime to Respond

This commentary reports on a project to explore and evaluate options for Great Lakes governance renewal in anticipation of the 2006–2007 review of the Canada–US Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA). The research included expert interviews and scholarly analysis of governance regimes in 2006, leading to a Great Lakes St. Lawrence River Governance Expert Workshop held in June 2007 (Krantzberg et al. 2007). The two authors have been participants and at times leaders in the institutions this commentary addresses, Krantzberg with the International Joint Commission and Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Manno with the New York Great Lakes Research Consortium and Great Lakes United. Our familiarity with the topic and many of the people involved was helpful in gaining participation and is in itself a rich source of knowledge and experience. In discussing a topic of contemporary controversy, it also understandably can make readers question the objectivity of our assessment. We are also trained in social science scholarship and have taken precautions against biasing the outcomes. This is not intended to be merely a presentation of data. We believe our experience is a net asset in addressing these questions but we leave it to the interested reader to review the reports referenced herein and judge for themselves whether our findings are fairly presented.     

An adaptive management approach for implementing multi-jurisdictional response to grass carp in Lake Erie

The Great Lakes are influenced by established aquatic invasive species (AIS) and the threat of new invaders persists. Grass carp, one of four species commonly referred to as Asian carp, are considered invasive because of their ability to adversely modify aquatic habitat through consumption of aquatic macrophytes. Grass carp have been infrequently detected in the Great Lakes since the mid-1980s. More frequent reports of grass carp captures from commercial fishermen in the early 2010’s elevated the concern of the potential risk of colonization in Lake Erie. This paper provides a case study detailing the development and implementation of a multi-jurisdictional response strategy for grass carp in Lake Erie. To respond to threats of grass carp in Lake Erie, Michigan and Ohio Departments of Natural Resources led targeted responses using a collaborative multi-jurisdictional approach, while simultaneously investing in reducing critical life-history uncertainties to refine strategies in an adaptive and science-based manner. Efforts to address uncertainties about grass carp life history documented spawning in two Lake Erie tributaries. Building on these early responses, the binational Lake Erie Committee developed a five-year adaptive response framework to guide response actions. The collaborative response efforts resulted in the capture and removal of 184 fertile grass carp since 2014, and efforts are ongoing to increase effectiveness of strategies to achieve desired population reduction. Coordinated grass carp response actions under the five-year strategy will continue using adaptive management principles with outcomes providing useful insights for adapting existing response frameworks and more broadly for AIS responses implemented elsewhere.     

Status of the major aquaculture carps of China in the Laurentian Great Lakes Basin

There is concern of economic and environmental damage occuring if any of the four major aquacultured carp species of China, black carp Mylopharyngodon piceus, bighead carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis, silver carp H. molitrix, or grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella, were to establish in the Laurentian Great Lakes. All four are reproducing in the Mississippi River Basin. We review the status of these fishes in relation to the Great Lakes and their proximity to pathways into the Great Lakes, based on captures and collections of eggs and larvae. No black carp have been captured in the Great Lakes Basin. One silver carp and one bighead carp were captured within the Chicago Area Waterway System, on the Great Lakes side of electric barriers designed to keep carp from entering the Great Lakes from the greater Mississippi River Basin. Three bighead carp were captured in Lake Erie, none later than the year 2000. By December 2019, at least 650 grass carps had been captured in the Great Lakes Basin, most in western Lake Erie, but none in Lake Superior. Grass carp reproduction has been documented in the Sandusky and Maumee rivers in Ohio, tributaries of Lake Erie. We also discuss environmental DNA (eDNA) results as an early detection and monitoring tool for bighead and silver carps. Detection of eDNA does not necessarily indicate presence of live fish, but bigheaded carp eDNA has been detected on the Great Lakes side of the barriers and in a small proportion of samples from the western basin of Lake Erie.     

Determination of the status of stakeholder participation in the management of the Lake Malawi basin through application of Integrated Lake Basin Management

Lake Malawi is the southernmost of the Great Rift Valley Lakes of Africa and boasts the world's greatest freshwater fish biodiversity. Along with its basin, the lake provides many benefits to the country of Malawi. Settlements, agriculture and fishing are some of the major uses of the lake basin, making community involvement a necessary component of its management. With the use of key informant interviews, questionnaire survey, document review and site observations, this study demonstrates the applicability of the Integrated Lake Basin Management framework in the Lake Malawi Basin in regard to stakeholder participation. The main objective was to assess the participation of stakeholders, especially local communities, in the management of the lake basin. The framework applied in this study is discussed. The study findings indicate strong to very strong stakeholder participation, with notably high levels of awareness and women's involvement. Enhancing the understanding of the complex nature of lake basin issues, especially those related to the linkages between the water body and the basin, is a topic requiring further attention.     

Exploring market-based environmental policy for groundwater management and ecosystem protection for the Great Lakes region: Lessons learned

The Great Lakes–St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact (the Compact) was created to protect future water supplies and aquatic ecosystems in the Great Lakes. The Compact requires the eight Great Lakes state to regulate, among other things, large withdrawals of groundwater and surface water so that they do not negatively affect stream flows and ecosystems within the Great Lakes Basin. Thus, the Compact raises the possibility of increased restrictions on groundwater withdrawals in many locations throughout the Great Lakes region. However, restricting withdrawals is likely to encounter opposition from water users when such restrictions are viewed as an infringement on existing water use rights and/or as negatively impacting local economic development. Such conflicts could hinder effective implementation of state and regional water policy. This paper explores the application of a market-based environmental management tool called “Conservation Credit Offsets Trading (CCOT)” that could facilitate allocation of groundwater withdrawals, and develops a framework for guiding the implementation of CCOT within the context of a groundwater permitting system. Using a watershed in southwestern Michigan, this study demonstrates how bio-physical information and input from various local stakeholders were combined to aid groundwater policy designed to achieve the objective of no net (adverse) impact on stream ecosystems. By allowing flexibility through trading of conservation credit offsets, this groundwater policy tool appears to be more politically acceptable than traditional, less flexible, regulations. The results and discussion provide useful lessons learned with relevance to other areas in the Great Lakes Basin.     

Critical analysis of water governance challenges of Songkhla Lake Basin,Thailand

The present study examines water governance challenges in the Songkhla Lake Basin (SLB) with the aim of evaluating and analysing policies, legislations, regulations, institutions and actors responsible for the current state of the basin. The present study adopted three methodological approaches, including literature reviews, face‐to‐face expert interviews and field survey to investigate governance challenges confronting the SLB. It identified six major governance challenges that combined to produce current barriers to sustainable governance, resulting in depletion and deterioration of the SLB resource system. Moving forward will require pursuit of better resource management and governance systems, which will require strengthening of the Songkhla Lake Basin Committee to play a much needed coordinating and policy harmonization role to promote coherent actions among the formal and informal actors in the basin. Review of existing water resources and related governance instruments to make them appropriate, adequate and relevant for the sustainability of the SLB also is essential.     

The bricks and mortar of collaborative ecosystem-based restoration and management

For three decades, communities, agencies, industries, and stakeholders throughout the Great Lakes have been working together to restore degraded ecosystems and revitalize local communities through the Areas of Concern Program. Their work constitutes a set of natural experiments in collaborative ecosystem-based management (EBM). Similar experiments have been occurring simultaneously elsewhere in North America and the world. Despite differences in scale, scope, and context, these initiatives all share several notable attributes in common. These findings are distilled in a conceptual framework of core factors that enable effective EBM. The analogy of Bricks and Mortar distinguishes between the organizational elements that support, structure, and guide a process and the motivational factors that energize and sustain it. Bricks provide the governance infrastructure within which activities occur: the table that provides a legitimate convening place; the authorities, purpose, and scope that bound the initiative; the organizational form that ensures essential functions are fulfilled; and the formally codified roles and responsibilities. Mortar is what motivates people to engage and stay engaged: the relationships that they form and the personal skillsets they bring to the table; a shared sense of place, purpose, and responsibility; an effective and rewarding process; and sustained commitment and leadership at all levels. These findings about the critical role of Bricks and Mortar in enabling EBM are translated into simple diagnostic tools for assessing their strength and viability in similar initiatives within the Great Lakes region and elsewhere.     

Stakeholders' perceptions of the socio‐economic and environmental challenges at Lake Victoria

Developing policy that is both relevant and supported requires an understanding of stakeholders' account of the key challenges in society. Such insights allow policymakers to better align their policy and collaborate with stakeholders to successfully manage the challenges. To this end, the present study reports on a problem analysis conducted with Lake Victoria stakeholders. A thorough stakeholder mapping procedure was followed by semistructured interviews with businesses, NGOs, governmental organizations and communities. In these interviews, stakeholders discussed what they perceived to be the most pressing challenges in the region, as well as their causes and possible mitigation strategies. The analysis resulted in 12 key challenges raised by the stakeholders that cover socio‐economic, environmental, health and institutional issues. Stakeholder analysis revealed that the type of challenges discussed varied across countries and stakeholder institutions. Based on these analyses, the present study concludes that these diverse perceptions must be taken into consideration in future policy formulation and that a strong partnership between policymakers and stakeholders is crucial to mitigate these challenges.     

Better governance for integrated management of the Lake Biwa—Yodo River Basin

The present study discusses the efforts of the Union of Kansai Governments to resolve serious issues in the Lake Biwa—Yodo River Basin in Japan. It identifies many of the issues related to the basin on a ‘no man's land’ mindset of today's governmental framework, which has constrained both the will and the approach to remedy the associated problems. It also highlights better governance that not only encourages individual efforts, but also promotes collaboration and cooperation among the major stakeholders in the area, as important to developing acceptable solutions to relevant issues. The present study also recognizes objective scientific evidence as an effective driver for improving governance, being the basis for making informed decisions and highlighting the use of appropriate indicators to evaluate the conditions characterizing a specific location or the basin as a whole. The present study also describes the Union of Kansai Governments as a behind‐the‐scenes coordinator that gathers knowledge and intelligence on the basin, and works to integrate policies by getting basin stakeholders to gradually improve governance by repeating a cycle of: (a) recognizing the current situation; (b) identifying relevant issues to be addressed; (c) establishing a framework and policy for collaboration and corporation; and (d) taking necessary actions. To this end, the present study discusses the studies and efforts of the Union of Kansai Governments to develop and implement integrated management of this important interlinked lake–river water system in Japan.     

Managing resources through stakeholder networks: collaborative water governance for Lake Naivasha basin,Kenya

Stakeholder analysis and social network analysis were used to analyze stakeholders’ social and structural characteristics based on their interests, influence and interactions in Lake Naivasha basin, Kenya. Even though the Kenyan government and its agencies seem to command higher influence and interest in water resource management, the presence of influential and central stakeholders from non-government sectors plays a key role in strengthening partnership in a governance environment with multiple sectors, complex issues and competing interests. Interactions in the basin are guided by stakeholders’ interest and sphere of influence, which have both promoted participation in implementing a collaborative water governance framework.     

Lake Champlain 2010: A summary of recent research and monitoring initiatives

Lake Champlain shares a geological history with the Great Lakes and, as part of the St. Lawrence drainage, also shares biological and ecological similarities. The complex bathymetry and extensive shoreline provide a variety of lacustrine habitats, from deep oligotrophic areas to shallow bays that are highly eutrophic. The large basin:lake ratio (19:1) makes Lake Champlain vulnerable to impacts associated with land use, and in some parts of the lake these impacts are further exacerbated by limited water exchange among lake segments due to both natural and anthropogenic barriers. Research in Lake Champlain and the surrounding basin has expanded considerably since the 1970s, with a particularly dramatic increase since the early 1990s. This special issue of the Journal of Great Lakes Research brings together 16 reports from recent research and monitoring efforts in Lake Champlain. The papers cover a variety of topics but primarily focus on lake hydrodynamics; historical and recent chemical changes in the lake; phosphorus loading; recent changes in populations of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fishes; impacts of invasive species; recreational use; and the challenges of management decision-making in a lake that falls within the legal jurisdictions of two U.S. states, one Canadian province, two national governments, and the International Joint Commission. The papers provide not only evaluations of progress on some critical management issues but also valuable reference points for future research.     

Community engagement and the importance of partnerships within the Great Lakes Areas of Concern program: A mixed-methods case study

The Great Lakes Areas of Concern (AOC) program was created through amendments to the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) in 1987 to restore contaminated sites using an ecosystem-based approach. This program represents one of the first instances of ecosystem-based management (EBM) in the Great Lakes region with a specific focus on the inclusion of the public and local stakeholders in the process. Despite official language incorporating EBM in the AOC program, implementation of these practices has not been consistent across AOCs given differences in local arrangements of Public Advisory Councils (PACs), approaches to community engagement, and environmental problems. To better understand community engagement in these complex AOCs, this research investigated community, PAC, and state agency perspectives in three AOCs in Michigan: the Kalamazoo River, Saginaw River and Bay, and Rouge River AOCs. We gathered data through interviews, focus groups, and participatory observations with community members, PAC members, and state officials in each AOC. Findings indicate that communities in these areas have minimal connection to the AOC program and PACs. Community members tended to have greater connection to local organizations that provide a variety of opportunities for community members to engage with their environment in ways they value. To better connect the public to the AOC program, PACs may benefit from intentional partnerships with community organizations to increase community engagement. To consistently bolster community engagement in AOCs, we further recommend that state agencies provide additional resources to improve connection to local communities.     

Evidence of a remnant self-sustaining strain of lake trout in the Lake Michigan basin

Managers have long embraced the need to maintain diversity as a requisite condition for population and community sustainability. In the case of Great Lakes lake trout, diversity has been severely compromised. The identification of new gamete sources may be beneficial to lake trout reintroduction efforts, particularly in situations where native stocks have been completely extirpated such as in Lake Michigan. Lake trout from Elk Lake, Michigan, are genetically distinct from domestic hatchery strains and historical forms of lake trout from Lake Michigan. Importantly, Elk Lake fish were genetically distinct from Marquette strain lake trout which were previously stocked into Elk Lake. Elk Lake fish were most similar to Lake Michigan basin-derived Lewis Lake (LLW) and Green Lake (GLW) hatchery strains and to historical Lake Michigan populations from the Charlevoix, Michigan area. While all individuals exhibited characteristics of lean form lake trout, the body shape of lake trout from Elk Lake, stocked lean fish from Lake Michigan and Lake Superior wild lean strains from near Isle Royale differed. Elk Lake fish were more fusiform, elongate, and streamlined with a narrower caudal peduncle compared to hatchery lean strains and wild lean forms from the Isle Royale region of Lake Superior. The lake trout population in Elk Lake is a remnant of a now extirpated native Lake Michigan population that was established either by natural colonization or stocking from historical Lake Michigan populations. Elk Lake lake trout is as genetically diverse as other strains used in Great Lakes reintroduction efforts and likely represent a viable gamete source representing genetic diversity lost from Lake Michigan.     

Six flags over Champlain: Starting points for a comparative analysis

Six legal regimes have jurisdiction over the Lake Champlain Basin—the states of New York and Vermont, the province of Québec, the federal governments of the United States and Canada, and the regime of international law. Joint efforts to address the environmental needs of the Lake must work within – or around – the legal systems of these six jurisdictions and their similarities and differences. The similarities arise from the historic origins of the law of New York, Vermont, the United States, and Canada; much of Québec's public law; and, in some respects, international law in the law of England. The differences also have historic roots. The private law of Québec is founded in the civil law brought by Québec's French founders. The federal constitutions of the United States and Canada allocate powers differently among the branches of government and between the national and state or provincial governments, in part because the Canadian Constitution evolved from the British parliamentary form of government after the American Revolution. Differences exist in the laws of New York and Vermont despite their common origins. The International Joint Commission applies international law to resolve issues between the United States and Canada. This paper summarizes the legal provisions that apply to Lake Champlain's environment to provide a starting point for comparative analysis of the similarities and differences that will facilitate the development of coordinated transboundary solutions to the environmental problems of the Lake Champlain Basin and that may be applicable to other shared international and interstate/provincial waters.     

Thirty-five years of restoring Great Lakes Areas of Concern: Gradual progress,hopeful future

In 1985, remedial action plan development was initiated to restore impaired beneficial uses in 42 Great Lakes Areas of Concern (AOCs). A 43rd AOC was designated in 1991. AOC restoration has not been easy as it requires networks focused on gathering stakeholders, coordinating efforts, and ensuring use restoration. As of 2019, seven AOCs were delisted, two were designated as Areas of Concern in Recovery, and 79 of 137 known use impairments in Canadian AOCs and 90 of 255 known use impairments in U.S. AOCs were eliminated. Between 1985 and 2019, a total of $22.78 billion U.S. was spent on restoring all AOCs. Pollution prevention investments should be viewed as spending to avoid future cleanups, and AOC restoration investments should be viewed as spending to help revitalize communities that has over a 3 to 1 return on investment. The pace of U.S. AOC restoration has accelerated under the Great Lakes Legacy Act (GLLA) and Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (GLRI). Sustained funding through U.S. programs like GLRI and GLLA and Canadian programs such as Canada-Ontario Agreement Respecting Great Lakes Water Quality and Ecosystem Health and the Great Lakes Protection Initiative is needed to restore all AOCs. Other major AOC program achievements include use of locally-designed ecosystem approaches, contaminated sediment remediation, habitat rehabilitation, controlling eutrophication, and advancing science. Key lessons learned include: ensure meaningful public participation; engage local leaders; establish a compelling vision; establish measurable targets; practice adaptive management; build partnerships; pursue collaborative financing; build a record of success; quantify benefits; and focus on life after delisting.     

The effectiveness of small-to-medium river basin organizations in China: a case study of the Erhai Lake Basin Management Commission

Drawing on empirical evidence from a case study conducted in the upper Mekong catchment, this article assesses the performance of the Erhai Lake Basin Management Commission, an organization mandated to control pollution and integrate the diverse interests of those individuals and communities living and working near Erhai Lake. Clear local rules, strong enforcement, practical protocols, clear responsibilities and extensive mobilization have been crucial to the success of this small river basin organization. However, the insufficient involvement of numerous important stakeholders in decision-making processes has decreased the commission’s capacity to address water issues.