"渗氮/物理气相沉积"复合涂层研究的新进展

介绍了"渗氮/物理气相沉积(PVD)"复合涂层在涂层结构设计、工艺与性能、失效与强化机制等方面研究的最新进展.与单一涂层相比,"渗氮/PVD"复合涂层表现出更好的物理力学性能,明显提高了工模具的耐用性.渗氮层的引入不仅显著地提高了基材表面的承载能力和膜/基结合力,而且还提高了钢表面的疲劳强度、耐磨性能、热冲击及化学抗力,尤其是在承受高载荷情况下的失效抗力.经过十几年的研发,复合涂层已开始进入商业应用阶段,在高速钢切削刀具和各种精密工模具上有广阔的应用前景.     

Impact of Repeated Nitriding Cycles on Extrusion Die Life—Some Statistical and Metallurgical Observations

This paper presents some observations about die failure patterns in commercial aluminum extrusions. A total of 97 dies were analyzed to observe the nature of scatter in the life of these commonly used dies. Each die in its complete life cycle passes through a number of nitriding treatments. The number of these nitriding treatments generally ranges from 5 to 10 in most cases. Each nitriding event is equivalent to die surface renewal, and a new time between failures is calculated after each renewal. This article analyzes the performance of both solid and hollow dies to first failure and to subsequent failures after nitriding. The Weibull model describes the time to first failure and cumulative time to nth failure of this group of dies and indicates an overall wearout pattern. The median time to failure, scatter in cumulative life, and progress of die death rate are discussed. A die is considered to fail when the surface must be nitrided. The interarrival time between failures (nitriding events) is analyzed for both solid and hollow dies. It is shown that interarrival time is also Weibull distributed. Based on these observations, it is concluded that if die is treated as a repairable system and the die surface nitriding makes the die as good as new, the failure can essentially be modeled as a nonhomogeneous Poisson process with a nonlinear intensity of failure. The results presented are of the first phase of an ongoing project dealing with life improvement of extrusion dies. The analyses presented provide a starting point for subsequent in-depth study of die-life reliability, optimal nitriding interval determination, and optimal cumulative time before die replacement.     

HD钢在气门热精锻模具的生产应用初步试验

气门热精锻模具失效的主要形式为热磨损和压塌，提高模具使用寿命的关键是使材料具有更高的室温和高温的硬度，磨损抗力，屈服强度和热稳定性。ＨＤ（４Ｃｒ３Ｍｏ２ＮｉｖＮｂ）钢比传统应用的３Ｃｒ２Ｗ８Ｖ钢具有更高的上述性能及足够的韧塑性，因而其模具在理论上具有更长的工作寿命。生产应用试验表明，ＨＤ钢制气门热精锻模具的使用寿命是３Ｃｒ２Ｗ８Ｖ钢的２．２倍。     

5CrNiMo钢的强度水平和表面强化对冲击疲劳性能的影响

本文探讨了用冲击疫劳试验测定的疲劳寿命和疲劳裂纹扩展速率衡量热锤锻模材料疲劳抗力的合理性。研究了5CrNiMo钢在热锻模要求的硬度范围内,材料强度水平和表面强化对冲击疲劳性能的影响。试验结果表明,在相当小型锻模受载的低冲击能量作用下,适当提高材料强度可延长疲劳寿命;在相当大型锻模受载的高冲击能量作用下,提高材料塑性、韧性可提高疲劳寿命。软氮化并磨去脆性白层可显著提高低冲击能量下的冲击疲劳寿命。     

Verschleißreduzierung an Matrizen für das Präzisionsschmieden von Zahnrädern durch Mehrlagenhartstoffbeschichtung (TiN‐TiCN‐TiC)

Wear reduction on dies for precision forging of gear wheels by means of multi‐layer coating (TiN‐TiCN‐TiC) Due to high thermal, mechanical and tribological loads the tool life quantity of hot forging dies compared to other manufacturing processes is relatively low. Depending on the number of forged parts the mentioned loads lead to different failure causes of the dies. In this connection wear is the main failure cause of hot forging dies. Especially in the precision forging process of gear wheels with its exacting tolerances the tool life quantity is low, which leads to often interruptions of the production process. Because wear concentrates on the near‐surface die areas, these problems can be reduced by increasing the wear resistance of these areas by the Duplex PACVD‐Method, which means nitriding and multi‐layer coating (TiN‐TiCN‐TiC).     

Innovationen durch PACVD Duplex Schichtsysteme im Leichtmetall‐Druckguss

Innovative PACVD Duplex Layer Systems applied for the Light Metal Die Casting Process Duplex‐PACVD hard coatings are well‐known for increasing the tool performance in terms of adhesion, wear, fatigue, and corrosion resistance of the steel. The developments made in synthesizing duplex nanostructure and nanocomposite, mono and gradient layers based on borides are described. The aim of the investigation is to optimize the surface capability by plasma process combinations: duplex process, gradient‐layer. Within this work different types of duplex hard coatings produced by PACVD were investigated in terms of their tribological behavior and were tested in aluminum and magnesium die casting applications. Practical tests have been carried out by automobile producers and part suppliers. All coatings tested on die casting tools showed a significant increase of lifetime and a reduced metal adhesion tendency. The economic efficiency of coated die casting tools could be proved.     

Fatigue Failure of Extrusion Dies: Effect of Process Parameters and Design Features on Die Life

Analysis of die failure plays an important role in the prediction and prevention of die failure, and subsequently in improving economics of any metal-forming process. Industrial experience has shown that fracture is the most common mode of failure in the case of hot aluminum extrusion dies. The purpose of the present work is to implement fatigue damage models in a Finite Element code for identification of critical process parameters and die design features in the case of fatigue being the dominating failure mode. For the maximum number of billets extruded by the die before fatigue crack initiation (fatigue life cycles in extrusion), Morrow’s stress- and strain-life damage models are implemented for axisymmetric flat extrusion die. With the help of finite element software ABAQUS, extrusion process is simulated and dynamic stress and strain values were obtained by first identifying the potential fatigue location in the die. The evaluation of applicability of the damage models is done for specific hot extrusion die made of H13 steels with Al-6063 as billet material. By considering temperature and strain rate as process parameters and bearing length and fillet radius of the die as geometric features, different simulation runs are performed to investigate the effect of process and design features on the useful die life. Morrow’s stress life model shows a good correspondence between computed and actual failure of dies. By establishing correlations of die life with process and design parameters under different conditions, it was shown that the present investigation is a useful guideline at die design and extrusion process stages.     

Wear assessment of plasma nitrided AISI H11 steel

Plasma nitriding is one of the effective methods for improvement of the hardness, wear and corrosion resistance of steels. In this research AISI H11 hot working tool steel was plasma nitrided in various gas mixtures for different times and temperatures. The morphology, size and composition of nitride nanoparticles formed on the surface of the specimens were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray diffraction (XRD). The wear behavior of plasma nitrided samples was studied by means of unlubricated pin-on-disc method under constant load of 80 N, sliding speed of 1 m/s, sliding distance of 2000 m at room temperature. The results showed plasma nitriding process improved the wear behavior of H11 steel. The increase in time and temperature of plasma nitriding decreased the hardness and increased the wear weigh loss of the specimens.     

Structure and morphology of TiB2 duplex coatings deposited over X40 CrMoV 5-1-1 steel by DC magnetron sputtering

The deposition of titanium diboride (TiB₂) films over tool steel substrates (AISI H13 premium/EN X40 CrMoV 5-1-1) is being investigated due to its excellent corrosion resistance and chemical stability against liquid aluminium. The use of nitrided steels as substrates for TiB₂ deposition may contribute to increase its adhesion and the overall steel resistance in applications such as forging, extrusion and die casting of aluminium. Duplex coatings were obtained by the PVD deposition of TiB₂ films over heat treated and nitrided steel using non-reactive DC magnetron sputtering from a TiB₂ target, varying the substrate bias voltage. Well structured and crystalline TiB₂ films were obtained for the selected deposition conditions, the best crystalline coatings being obtained for the positively biased substrates. Selected films produced over die-casting pins at a bias voltage of +50 V were tested for resistance to liquid aluminium soldering by immersion tests, and compared with the nitrided steel. The duplex TiB₂ coating has a much larger chemical resistance to attack by molten aluminium alloy than the just nitrided steel. Where there is soldering, steel is rapidly attacked and a complex Al-Fe-Si intermetallic forms.     

铝型材挤压模具离子注入表面强化

铝型材热挤压模具的磨损、润滑和使用寿命短等问题直接影响着铝加工行业中铝产品的质量和厂家的经济效益。我院与广东兴发铝型材厂合作，将离子注入技术应用于铝型材生产，对铝型材挤压模具进行了表面改性处理。51只离子注入改性后的模具在线实验表明：模具总的中间使用寿命平均提高了140%，同时改善了铝型材的表面光洁度，减少了模具的拆卸、修整次数和降低了生产工人的劳动强度。     

Influence of nitriding on corrosion resistance of martensitic X17CrNi16‐2 stainless steel

Nitriding increases surface hardness and improves wear resistance of stainless steels. However, nitriding can sometimes reduce their corrosion resistance. In this paper, the influence of nitriding on the corrosion resistance of martensitic stainless steel was investigated. Plasma nitriding at 440 °C and 525 °C and salt bath nitrocarburizing were carried out on X17CrNi16‐2 stainless steel. Microhardness profiles of the obtained nitrided layers were examined. Phase composition analysis and quantitative depth profile analysis of the nitrided layers were preformed by X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and glow‐discharge optical emission spectrometry (GD‐OES), respectively. Corrosion behaviour was evaluated by immersion test in 1% HCl, salt spray test in 5% NaCl and electrochemical corrosion tests in 3.5% NaCl aqueous solution. Results show that salt bath nitrocarburizing, as well as plasma nitriding at low temperature, increased microhardness without significantly reducing corrosion resistance. Plasma nitriding at a higher temperature increased the corrosion tendency of the X17CrNi16‐2 steel.     

Duplex surface treatment of AISI 1045 steel via plasma nitriding of chromized layer

In this work AISI 1045 steel were duplex treated via plasma nitriding of chromized layer. Samples were pack chromized by using a powder mixture consisting of ferrochromium, ammonium chloride and alumina at 1273 K for 5 h. The samples were then plasma-nitrided for 5 h at 803 K and 823 K, in a gas mixture of 75%N₂ + 25%H₂. The treated specimens were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and Vickers micro-hardness test. The thickness of chromized layer before nitriding was about 8 μm and it was increased after plasma nitriding. According to XRD analysis, the chromized layer was composed of chromium and iron carbides. Plasma nitriding of chromized layer resulted in the formation of chromium and iron nitrides and carbides. The hardness of the duplex layers was significantly higher than the hardness of the base material or chromized layer. The main cause of the large improvement in surface hardness was due to the formation of Cr_xN and Fe_xN phases in the duplex treated layers. Increasing of nitriding temperature from 803 to 823 K enhanced the formation of CrN in the duplex treated layer and increased the thickness of the nitrided layer.     

Fracture life prediction and sensitivity analysis for hollow extrusion dies

It has been reported in literature that extrusion dies most often fail by fatigue fracture. Experimental studies have shown that cracks pre‐exist in dies because of various factors including machining, heat treatment and surface hardening. High levels of repeated mechanical and thermal loads result in crack propagation leading to ultimate fracture failure. In an earlier work by the authors, a simplified approach of plate‐with‐edge‐crack was used to develop a fracture mechanics based fatigue life prediction model for tube dies. In the current work, extrusion die is modeled as a pressurized‐cylinder‐with‐internal‐crack, a more realistic approach for a hollow (tube) die. Stochastic nature of various fatigue‐related die parameters has been used to reflect their variability. Monte Carlo simulation has been performed to forecast fracture failure of extrusion dies under a given set of operating conditions and mechanical properties. Predicted mean‐time‐to‐failure is quite close to actual average extrusion die life data from the industry. Using tube die as a basis, fracture life of other hollow profiles can be estimated through their shape complexity values. Analysis has also been carried out to evaluate how sensitive fracture life of hollow extrusion dies is to material and process parameters. Major findings are that die life is highly sensitive to initial crack size, wall thickness, profile outer diameter and billet length; moderately sensitive to Paris constant and extrusion ratio; and only slightly sensitive to fracture toughness and ram speed. These results can contribute to a deeper understanding of the factors responsible for fracture failure of an extrusion die exposed to thermo‐mechanical fatigue environment.     

Ceramic Tool Concepts for the Semi‐Solid Processing of Steel Alloys

Two different ceramic tool concepts for the semi‐solid processing (Thixoforming) of steel alloys are presented. Materials selection is adapted to forming technology (Thixoforging, Thixoextrusion), preset die temperature, and resulting process conditions. Gas‐pressure sintered silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) is chosen as die material in low tool temperature (300...400 °C) thixoforging experiments due to its high strength and outstanding thermal shock resistance. High purity dense alumina (Al₂O₃) is applied as die material for high temperature (1200 °C) thixoextrusion tests. Thixoforging results using Si₃N₄ dies pre‐heated to 300 °C show sufficient thermal shock and corrosion resistance of Si₃N₄ and confirm the applicability of this tool concept. The high temperature tool concept developed at the Institute of Mineral Engineering (GHI) effectively reduced thermal shock impacts on extrusion dies. As expected, corrosion resistance of Al₂O₃ proved to be excellent. Further research will be carried out concerning long‐term behaviour of Si₃N₄ thixoforging dies as well as on the influence of extrusion speed and tool temperature on the quality of products extruded through Al₂O₃ dies at high temperature.     

Multifunktionale Duplex‐PACVD‐Schichtsysteme im Aluminiumdruckguss. Multifunctional duplex PACVD layer systems for aluminium die casting

The developments made in synthesizing duplex nanostructure and nanocomposite, gradient, and multi‐layers based on borides are described. The aim of the investigation is to optimize the surface capability by plasma process combinations: duplex process, gradient‐layer, multi‐layer. Within this work different types of duplex hard coatings produced by PACVD were investigated in terms of their tribological behavior and were tested in aluminum die casting applications. Practical tests have been carried out. All coatings tested on die‐casting tools showed a significant increase of lifetime and a reduced metal adhesion tendency. The economic efficiency of coated die casting tools could be proved.     

Failure analysis of hot extrusion die based on dimensional metrology,micro-characterization and numerical simulation — A case study of Ti alloy parts

From an actual production campaign, the hot extrusion process of titanium alloy in a combined die cavity was considered to understand the failure modes of extrusion die. The macro failures and damage states were qualitatively analysed, and the geometric deviation of die cavity was quantified by measuring the local geometric contour. The microstructure of the maximal damage zone of the scrapped die was examined by using optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The microhardness profiles from the die surface layer to the matrix was also measured. Combined with a thermal mechanical finite element method (FEM), the squashing and extruding process were modeled to evaluate the thermal and mechanical loadings on the die cavity. The results show that the prime damage zones under different damage states are located at the local positions of the die transition fillets. At the bearing channel and the transition fillets of die cavity, aside from the inevitable wear, the local micro-plastic deformation and thermal mechanical fatigue peeling are the main reasons for the die failure. This investigation aims to guide the design and manufacturing of dies, to select the appropriate material of the dies, and to plan the heat treatment regime and working conditions. Meanwhile, it is also the prerequisite to develop a reasonable die strengthening or repairing method through surface engineering method.     

Boronizing for erosion resistance

Boronizing is a diffusion process analogous to carburizing and nitriding. It is achieved by heating parts in a pack. One layer or two may be formed, depending on the boron potential of the pack. A single layer is generally better for wear resistance than a duplex layer. Other methods such as salt bath or gas phase boronizing are available.The layer is very hard and confers great resistance both to sliding wear and to abrasive wear. With mild steel, sliding wear can be reduced by up to three orders of magnitude. Boronizing prevents the transition to adhesive or severe wear.Sintered carbide wire-drawing dies wear by a mixture of corrosion and adhesion. The life of a die will depend on the material being drawn. In this respect, stainless steel is particularly difficult. Boronized dies can lead to a life increase of 10 times.In abrasive wear, boronizing is more cost effective than any other material for such items as agricultural machinery.Molten zinc is very corrosive to mild steel. In jobbing galvanizers' works boronized mild steel is cheaper and longer lasting than titanium for carrying ware into the zinc bath.Resistance to acids, in particular to hydrochloric acid, is increased by boronizing.     

Spray forming of high density sheets

Porosity is one of the most important quality criteria of spray‐formed materials in the as‐sprayed condition. Typically, spray‐formed sheets have a porous rim close to the substrate and depending on the spray conditions cold or hot porosity may also be present in the core of the deposit. This porosity has to be removed or minimized to make further processing steps such as rolling, forging or extrusion possible. In this paper, the influence of both substrate temperature and deposit surface temperature on porosity in spray‐formed sheets is studied. For this purpose spray forming experiments (sheet size 1000 mm × 250 mm) were carried out using three different materials: aluminium‐bronze, tin‐bronze and a nitriding steel. For the copper‐base alloys preheated steel‐substrates with different temperatures were moved through a scanning spray cone. In the case of steel a ceramic substrate at room temperature was used. In addition to the variation of the substrate temperature, the gas to metal mass flow ratio (GMR) was varied to achieve different deposit surface temperatures. During the run the surface temperature in the deposition zone was measured using a scanning, multi‐wavelength pyrometer. Samples of the deposits were polished and rasterized by light microscopy. The local porosity was characterized by digital image analysis. The influence of the substrate temperature and the GMR on the porosity in the vicinity of the substrate is evaluated and discussed in detail. The impact of the deposit surface temperature on the porosity was analyzed and is discussed as well. It was found that the deposit surface temperature has a strong impact on porosity for spray‐formed sheets. Finally, experimental results were used to develop a new approach to predict the porosity in spray‐formed sheets. The results clearly show the dependence on material properties. This approach can be used to identify process parameters to generate high density sheets in the future.     

铝合金异形波导管的热挤压

论述了Ｐ４Ａ１４８３－４型铝合金异形波导管的挤压模设计和挤压工艺选择；提出了采用分流组合模挤压工艺制造复杂形状的异形波导管。     

Extrusion characteristics of aluminium alloy/SiCpmetal matrix composites

Abstract

Systematic extrusion studies have been carried out on aluminium alloy 2124/SiC_p metal matrix composites. Effects of various extrusion process parameters, such as die design, ram speed, extrusion ratio, reheat temperature, and lubrication, on the pressure requirement and surface quality of the as extruded circular rods have been investigated. Different volume fractions of SiC particles (10, 15, and 20 vol.-%) were used for the synthesis of metal matrix composite billets. These composites were synthesised using two different techniques, namely, stir casting and powder metallurgy. These billets were then hot extruded on a laboratory scale 500 ton vertical hydraulic press. The significance of specially designed dish shaped dies, avoiding the dead metal zone, has also been highlighted. The results indicated that the best extrusion was possible when powder metallurgical processed billets were extruded. Volume fraction analysis of ceramic reinforcement in the extruded rod (typically 2 m long) and in the extruded discard showed no appreciable backward migration of these particles during extrusion.