Tribological Challenges in Micromechanical Systems

Despite much progress in surface micromachining technology, adhesion, friction and wear remain key issues, severely limiting the realization and reliability of many microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices. In this article, we focus on the use of molecularly thin organic films as release and anti-stiction coatings for MEMS. The various classes of organic films explored for MEMS are reviewed here, followed by a discussion of the current limitations and areas for improvements for this coating technology.     

On the stiction of MEMS materials

Stiction is a serious problem in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) due to their large surface area-to-volume ratio. Stiction is closely related to surface forces, which greatly depend on the materials used, surface topography and surface treatment process. In this paper, we investigate surface energies and stiction of commonly used MEMS materials by contact angle measurements and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Dispersive and polar components of surface energies are calculated by Owens–Wendt–Rabel–Kaelble method. Silicon and silicon-related materials have higher polar surface energies than SU-8 and poly-methylmethacrylate (PMMA), thereby have larger surface energies and enhanced tendency for stiction. The nano-scale adhesion forces between Si₃N₄ tip and surfaces obtained by AFM further verified that silicon wafer with native oxide has 3–4 times higher adhesion force than SU-8 and PMMA. It has been shown that the materials with higher surface energy have higher sticton/adhesion forces. The topography of surface influences the contact angle and stiction, and is also discussed in the paper.     

Generation of defects in model lubricant monolayers and their contribution to energy dissipation in friction

The structural, mechanical (friction) and spectroscopic properties of model lubricant films made of self-assembled and Langmuir–Blodgett monolayers on quartz, mica and gold have been investigated with atomic force microscopy, the surface forces apparatus and sum-frequency generation. In these films, the molecules tend to form densely packed structures, with the alkane chains mostly vertical and parallel to each other. The SFG results suggest that under moderate pressures of a few tens of MPa, the methyl end group of the alkane chains is rotated to accommodate a terminal gauche distortion. The molecule, however, retains its upright close-packed structure with a lattice periodicity when ordered, which can be resolved by AFM. At pressures above 0.1 GPa, changes in the form of collective molecular tilts take place that lower the height of the monolayer. Only certain angles of tilt are allowed that are explained by the interlocking of methylene units in neighboring chains. The discrete angular tilts are accompanied by increases in friction. A model based on the van der Waals attractive energy between chains is used to explain the stability of the films and to estimate the cohesive energy changes during tilt and, from that, the increases in friction force.     

Characterization of mixed self-assembled monolayers for immobilization of streptavidin using chemical force microscopy

Mixed self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) to immobilize streptavidin on a gold surface were investigated by measuring the pull-off force between an AFM tip and a biotin-modified surface using CFM. Biotin-LC-NHS was modified on SAMs prepared from a mixed solution of cystamine and MEOH. Increased pull-off forces between the AFM tip and the surface were observed with an increased cystamine mole fraction in the solution. Streptavidin was immobilized onto biotin-LC-NHS modified mixed SAMs and analyzed by tapping AFM. Also, the formation of mixed SAMs containing MUOH and MBDA was confirmed using CFM. The measured pull-off forces on the only MBDA surface were larger than those on the surface with MUOH. These results can be applied to determine an optimal mixing ratio of MUOH and MBDA SAMs that reduces non-specific streptavidin binding onto a surface.     

磁头/磁盘表面保护膜及抗吸附分子膜研究

在中国国家自然科学基金重大项目《先进电子制造中的重要科学技术问题研究》资助下，针对2nm厚度的DLC薄膜的制备和磁头、磁盘间的吸附等问题，探索“磁头、磁盘表面润滑规律和超薄保护膜的生长机理及技术”，目标是寻找磁头、磁盘表面超薄DLC薄膜新的制备方法和制备工艺，发现超薄DLC保护膜的生长机理和生长极限，开发磁头表面抗吸附分子膜的制备技术。报告研究所取得的体系化理论成果。 为了制备厚度为2nm的超薄DLC薄膜，使用FCVA技术代替磁控溅射和CVD技术。通过优化制备参数，制备出厚度为2nm，表面粗糙度为0.128nm，并且连续均匀的DLC薄膜。探索基体形貌对薄膜生长模式的影响规律。发现在脉冲偏压幅值-100V、占空比20%条件下制备的薄膜性能最优     

氨基表面自组装膜成膜及摩擦性能研究

运用原子力显微镜与接触角测量仪研究了3-氨丙基三乙氧基硅烷(APTES)自组装膜不同成膜时间的表面形貌平均粗糙度、接触角,并进行了XPS(X射线光电子能谱)元素分析,表明APTES自组装膜以“岛”状生长,随着反应的时间的延长,岛的数量急剧增加,形成平整光滑的膜,进一步延长成膜时间,可能形成多层膜,从而平均粗糙度先增大再减小然后再增大,表面性质一直变化不大。微摩擦磨损实验研究表明,APTES自组装膜大大降低镀Cr钢球与硅片之间的摩擦因数,摩擦因数从0.71左右降低到0.16左右,在分子级润滑中有广阔的应用前景。     

基于本征光敏型聚酰亚胺的多层薄膜电路制作工艺

本征光敏型聚酰亚胺(PSPI)具有优良的热稳定性、感光性、力学性能和介电性能,其在MCM组件中的应用,将进一步降低组件的重量、提高封装密度.在国外,PSPI在MCM中的应用已较为成熟,而国内在这方面与国外有较大的差距.为此,文章从应用的角度出发,研究了PSPI的光刻特性,优化工艺参数后,厚度10μm的PSPI可刻出Φ30μm的微孔;PSPI表面沉积金属的附着力是难点和关键,文中重点对PSPI表面金属化工艺进行了研究,通过对PSPI进行等离子处理工艺的优化,在其表面TiW-Cu-Au膜层的附着力满足要求,附着力达25 MPa;在此基础上,制作出了"3层介质+3层电路"的多层薄膜微波测试电路.结果表明,测试电路层间导通良好,在1~40 GHz范围内插入损耗小于0.85 dB,回波损耗小于-13 dB.     

全氟羧酸自组装分子润滑膜的纳米摩擦学性能的研究

采用气相沉积的方法在铝表面制备了不同碳链长度的全氟羧酸自组装膜。考察了全氟羧酸自组装膜的接触角、膜厚、粘着和微摩擦等表面性质。对相对湿度和温度等环境因素对全氟羧酸自组装膜的纳米摩擦学性能的影响进行了研究。探讨了在环境因素影响下的减摩抗粘着机制。结果表明:自组装膜具有显著的抗粘着效果;随着相对湿度的增加,针尖与样品的粘着力增加,随着温度的增加,针尖与样品粘着力降低,并趋于稳定值;全氟羧酸自组装单层膜能显著降低表面的摩擦力,起到良好的减摩效果,且随烷基链越长,减摩效果越好。     

表面加工多晶硅薄膜热扩散系数在线测试结构

基于目前已有的真空桥式薄膜热扩散系数测试结构和测试方法，综合考虑辐射、对流以及向衬底的传热等因素的影响，从而使得本文设计的测试结构和提取方法更具有实际价值。文中通过分析两个长度不同，但宽度与厚度相同的梁在相同加热电流下的瞬态电阻变化特性，来提取多晶硅薄膜的热扩散系数。同时利用有限元分析软件ANSYS进行了模拟分析，分析表明模拟提取值与理论值较好地吻合，从而验证了模型建立的正确性，说明该方法能够实现对多晶硅薄膜热扩散系数的在线提取，且具有较高的测试精确度。     

Periodicities in the properties associated with the friction of model self-assembled monolayers

The classical molecular dynamics simulations presented here examine the periodicities associated with the sliding of a diamond counterface across a monolayer of hydrocarbon chains that are covalently bound to a diamond substrate. Periodicities observed in a number of system quantities are a result of the tight packing of the monolayer and the commensurate structure of the diamond counterface. The packing and commensurability of the system force synchronized motion of the chains during sliding contact. This implies that the size of the simulations for this special case can be reduced so that the simulations can be conducted with sliding speeds and time durations that may bridge the gap between theory and experiment.     

基底温度对YbF3薄膜缺陷和光学性能影响研究

采用热蒸发法镀制了单层Y bF3薄膜,观察了薄膜表面主要的微观结构缺陷,研究了沉积温度对薄膜折射率与表面缺陷的影响,测量了薄膜施加沉积温度前后的粗糙度变化。结果表明:通过加温可以降低薄膜的表面粗糙度与缺陷密度大小。     

Micromorphology analysis of TiO2 thin films by atomic force microscopy images: The influence of postannealing

This work describes an analysis of titanium dioxide (TiO₂) thin films prepared on silicon substrates by direct current (DC) planar magnetron sputtering system in O₂/Ar atmosphere in correlation with three‐dimensional (3D) surface characterization using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The samples were grown at temperatures 200, 300, and 400°C on silicon substrate using the same deposition time (30 min) and were distributed into four groups: Group I (as‐deposited samples), Group II (samples annealed at 200°C), Group III (samples annealed at 300°C), and Group IV (samples annealed at 400°C). AFM images with a size of 0.95 μm × 0.95 μm were recorded with a scanning resolution of 256 × 256 pixels. Stereometric analysis was carried out on the basis of AFM data, and the surface topography was described according to ISO 25178‐2:2012 and American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) B46.1‐2009 standards. The maximum and minimum root mean square roughnesses were observed in surfaces of Group II (Sq = 7.96 ± 0.1 nm) and Group IV (Sq = 3.87 ± 0.1 nm), respectively.     

Effect of surface chemistry on the tribological performance of a MEMS electrostatic lateral output motor

The effect of surface chemistry on the tribological performance and reliability of a MEMS lateral output motor is reported. Relative humidity (RH) and octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) self-assembled monolayer (SAM) coatings were used to change surface chemistry. Electrical and tribological performance of uncoated and OTS-coated motors were found to be dependent on RH. For uncoated motors, excessive wear of sliding contacts and welding (permanent adhesion) of static contacts were observed at 0.1% RH. Degradation of electrostatic force and high static friction (stiction) forces limited dynamic performance and reliability and caused device sticking at and above 70% RH. Around 50% RH, uncoated motors exhibited negligible wear, low adhesion, and a wear life at least three orders of magnitude longer than in the dry environment (experiments were stopped without failure after about one billion cycles). Water vapor behaved as a gas phase replenishable lubricant by providing a protective adsorbed film. The OTS coating broadened the operating envelope to 30–50% RH and reduced stiction, which allowed better dynamic performance at high RH. The OTS coating improved durability at 0.1% RH, but it was still poor. At high RH, stiction problems reoccurred when the OTS coating was worn away. By controlling and balancing surface chemistry (adsorbed water and OTS), excellent performance, low friction and wear, and excellent durability were attained with the lateral output motor.     

A novel absorptive thin film for laser welding in optoelectronic device capsulation

1Introduction Laserweldingisakindofkeytechniquein thefieldofoptoelectronicdevicecapsulation.Thisprovedefficienttechniqueisincreasingly appliedinthewave guidematerialssuchas SiO2,Si,SiCandLiNbO3.Ouroriginalsugges tionistojointtheLiNbO3wave guideandV groovefiberopticassemblyonthesurfaceofthe steelsubstrate.Generally,agglutinationisthe regularchoice.Actually,thecorrespondinglyhighexpan sioncoefficientandshortlifespanoftheadhe sivesarethegreatestdrawbacks,thoughitisa convenienttechnique.Tin …     

沉积时间对MPTS自组装膜摩擦学性质的影响

利用分子自组装技术在羟基化后的单晶硅硅片表面制备(3-巯基丙基)三甲氧基硅烷(MPTS)自组装膜,用X射线光电子能谱仪(XPS)对薄膜的表面结构进行表征,用JGW-360a型接触角测量仪测量硅片表面的接触角,用UMT-200型微观摩擦磨损实验机测量硅片的摩擦因数,探讨沉积时间对自组装膜的摩擦学性能的影响。结果表明:MPTS自组装膜具有亲水疏水性能,其对水的接触角超过60°;硅片表面沉积MPTS可以大幅度降低硅片的摩擦因数,使硅基片表面的摩擦因数由无膜时的0.6降至0.25左右,且具有很好的耐磨性;沉积时间对硅表面自组装膜的摩擦学性能影响较大,在本实验条件下,0.5 h沉积时间所制备的MPTS-SAM硅片的耐磨性最佳,1 h沉积时间制得的硅片表面最为光滑。     

Tribological Properties of Self-Assembled Monolayers and Their Substrates Under Various Humid Environments

Using friction force microscopy (FFM) under controlled environments, we have systematically investigated the humidity effect on the frictional properties of two important classes of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), i.e., N-octadecyltrimethoxysilane (OTE, CH₃(CH₂)₁₇Si(OCH₃)₃) on SiO₂(OTE/SiO₂), and N-alkanethiols on Au(111), together with their respective substrates. Experimental results show that both OTE and alkylthiol SAMs can decrease the friction force between a Si₃N₄ atomic force microscope (AFM) tip and substrates. The nearly humidity-independent friction of the two kinds of SAMs indicates that these SAMs are ideal lubricants in applications of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) under different environments. The humidity dependence—as the humidity increases, the friction first increases and then decreases—of the two substrates, SiO₂ and Au(111), can be explained by the adsorption of water. The decrease in the friction at high humidity is attributed to the low viscosity in the multilayers of water, while the increase in the friction at low humidity can be explained by the high viscosity between the water monolayer and the surfaces (AFM tip and sample), possibly due to the confinement effects. The effect of modification of the AFM tip with alkanethiol molecules on the humidity dependence of Au(111) friction has also been investigated.     

基于腔结构的射频微机械谐振元件的设计

对圆柱形复合腔结构微机械谐振元件进行了设计研究,提出了一种基于柱形腔结构的微机械复合谐振元件的设计方法,并对其结构及特性进行了研究.建立了复合腔结构的电磁场数学方程,腔体基于体微机械微细加工技术实现工艺设计,最后对该元件进行了仿真分析.TM010模式下,谐振腔谐振频率为24.313299GHz,Q值为3529.707890,考虑微带耦合时仿真出复合谐振元件的最佳谐振频率为24.75GHz.仿真实验结果和理论值的平均误差不到1%,两者吻合得很好,说明了该设计的可行性.进一步改变结构参数,可获取不同谐振频率的器件,且可在腔体中填充高介电常数介质来减小器件的谐振频率,克服了以往使用腔体结构在低频段时体积过大等问题.     

Developments in tribological research on ultrathin films

A review of studies of the tribology of ultrathin films is presented, which focuses primarily on the tribological properties of the Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) films, self-assembled monolayers, and the molecular deposition films investigated by the authors and their co-workers. The emergence of the atomic force microscope has helped the development of studies of ultrathin films; particularly LB films which have been studied extensively. Firstly, the results of research into the various factors affecting the tribological properties of LB films and progress in the application of molecular dynamics simulations to study the mechanisms of friction and lubrication are introduced. Then a review of the experimental and theoretical research into self-assembled monolayers is given. Finally, recent advances in the investigation of tribological properties of molecular deposition films on different substrates (Au, Si and silica rock surfaces) are presented and the prospects for the tribological applications of such ultrathin films are addressed.     

A new structure for enhanced transmission through a two-dimensional metallic grating

The spectral response of metallic two‐dimensional periodic structures in which circular apertures are engraved has been extensively studied. We show that in such devices transmission can be highly enhanced by partially shutting the central parts of each aperture in order to make a periodic array of subwavelength coaxial structures.