基于多元线性回归的低温容器蒸发流量影响因素分析

以液氮为试验工质,对一个容积为35立方米的高真空多层绝热容器进行了日蒸发率试验,将得到的蒸发流量与环境压力、气相空间压力及环境温度之间的关系进行了多元线性回归分析,给出了蒸发流量的回归方程,并通过数理统计理论证明此方程具有较高的显著性。分析了每个影响蒸发流量的因素在多元回归中所起的作用。分析表明,环境压力、环境温度是影响蒸发流量的主要因素,并且环境压力的影响比环境温度大;气相空间压力对蒸发流量的影响比较小,是次要因素。     

低温容器的蒸汽爆炸现象初探

拟讨论的蒸汽爆炸现象定义为液体因处于较大的过热度而急剧汽化，介质所处空间因大量气体得不到及时释放而使压力骤然升高引发的一种物理爆炸，在低温容器中，液氮，液等介质可能处于数兆帕的压力下，如果容器的某一位置因某种外在原因出现裂口，则其内部的压力会迅速降低，导致液体过热，如果过热度较大，则不能排除低温容器发生蒸汽爆炸的可能性，本文从介绍蒸汽爆炸的机理入手，建立了过热液体中产生均匀核化时汽泡的形成，生长模型，并利用该模型对低温容器的介质发生蒸汽爆炸的可能性进行了探讨。     

Demonstration of liquid nitrogen wicking using a multi-layer metallic wire cloth laminate

Cryogenic heat transport devices are the most basic and critical component for the thermal integration between the cryogenic component and its cooling source. In space environments, containment of heat transfer fluid inside a capillary structure is critical due to the absence of gravity. Cryogenic heat pipes using the capillary force for circulation may provide a solution for heat transfer in space applications due to its independence of gravity and transport distance. To achieve a high effective capillary performance, several options of wicking structures have been investigated. An efficient wicking flow of liquid nitrogen is demonstrated with a sintered, multi-layer, porous lamination of metal wire (pore size as low as 5 μm) in an open cryogenic chamber. The test data are presented in this paper. This technology has potential for use in development of improved cryogenic heat transfer devices and containment of cryogenic propellants under micro-gravity environment.     

车载LNG储罐蒸发率的理论与试验

为研究车载LNG低温绝热气瓶内液体的蒸发规律,以200 L高真空多层绝热气瓶为例,采用液氮(LN2)为工质,进行了一系列LN2日蒸发率试验。列出根据实验系统结构参数得到的相关传热学计算结果,包括试验系统分别贮存LN2和LNG各项漏热及理论蒸发率。对理论计算与实验结果进行比较,通过理论计算结果与LN2蒸发率实验结果对LNG试验蒸发率作了预测。根据大气压力下进行的各种充满率的LN2蒸发率实验,拟合出了系统蒸发率与充满率的关系曲线,并分析了系统中环境温度和压力对蒸发率的影响规律。     

Experimental results of flooding experiments in an inclined tube with liquid nitrogen and its vapor

Counter-current two-phase flow behaviors of saturated liquid nitrogen and its vapor at the onset of flooding are experimentally investigated. The experiments are carried out in a vacuum-insulated 20 mm i.d. transparent tube with the inclination angles of 30°, 45° and 60° corresponding to the horizontal. The common slug flow phenomenon happened with water–air is not observed with liquid nitrogen–vapor, instead, the big interfacial wave is found to be crushed to tiny droplets. The phenomenal difference is primarily attributed to the larger viscosity of water than liquid nitrogen. Correspondingly, the sharp rise of pressure drop with water–air is largely due to the blockage of gas flow by the formed slug, while it is primarily due to the tiny droplet entrainment for the liquid nitrogen–vapor pairs. The effects of inclination angles on the incipient flooding velocity are specially emphasized and investigated. A new correlation base on Ohnesorge number and modified Froude number are presented, and the results coincide with the experimental data of both room-temperature and cryogenic fluids with the uncertainty of 20%.     

Imbibition of Liquid Helium in Aerogels

We report optical measurements of the imbibition of liquid helium in a sample of silica aerogel with 90 % porosity. Both direct imaging and light scattering experiments were performed to determine the dynamics and the properties of the liquid-gas interface in both the normal and superfluid phases of liquid helium. In the normal phase, a classical Lucas Washburn behavior is observed for the rise of the imbibition front while the behavior in the superfluid phase is markedly different, as the fluid invades the sample from all sides with a constant speed. In both phases, the interface is rough, leading to light scattering. In addition, condensation ahead of the imbibition front is observed at low temperature in the superfluid phase.     

Analysis of a convective fluid flow with a concurrent gas flow with allowance for evaporation

The paper presents a theoretical analysis of a convective fluid flow with a concurrent gas flow accompanied by evaporation at the interface. The analysis of two-layer flows is based on a mathematical model taking into account evaporation at a thermocapillary boundary and effects of thermal diffusion and diffusion heat conduction in the gas–vapor layer. New exact solutions describing steady two-layer flows in a channel with the interface remaining undeformed and examples of velocity and temperature profiles for the HFE-7100 (liquid)–nitrogen (gas) system are presented. The influence of longitudinal temperature gradients along the channel boundaries, the gas flow rate, and the height of the fluid layer on the flow regime and evaporation rate is studied. A comparison of the calculated data with experimental results is performed.     

Liquid nitrogen injection into water: Pressure build-up and heat transfer

This paper is concerned about the expansion of a small amount of liquid nitrogen injected into a relatively large pool of water and the heat transfer behaviour during the process. Both the transient pressure and temperature profiles are experimentally measured and analysed. The results show that the pressure and the rate of pressure rise increase approximately linearly with increasing injection pressure and reach, respectively, to 284 kPa and 500 kPa/s at a liquid nitrogen injection velocity of ∼0.85 m/s. The temperature varies little during the injection process due to relatively small amount of liquid nitrogen injected. A comparison of the experimental results with related work on surface boiling of cryogen suggests that the heat transfer of direct mixing be much stronger than boiling on smooth surfaces and flow boiling through smooth pipes, but comparable to the boiling on very rough surfaces and flow boiling in pipes with porous inserts. A comparison with the results generated by injecting a small amount of water into liquid cryogens shows that a higher pressure increase rate could be achieved if operating conditions are optimised to induce fragmentation. Implications of the results to cryogenic engine work output and ways to improve the performance of cryogenic engines are also discussed.     

低温推进剂蒸发量主动控制实验研究

以液氮为研究工质,基于研制的低温推进剂蒸发量主动控制实验平台开展了"零蒸发"贮存实验研究。该实验平台以G-M制冷机作为冷源,通过换热器对500 L液氮贮存容器内部输入冷量,以此控制液氮的蒸发速率,实现液氮的"零蒸发"贮存。实验研究表明,对于液氮贮存空间气相区和液相区分别输入冷量,均能抑制系统压力上升趋势,实现"零蒸发"贮存的目的,其中对于液相区输入冷量效率更高,能够在较短时间内降低系统压力。通过该实验平台上还进行了蒸汽冷却屏控制液氮蒸发速率研究,实验证明通过蒸汽冷却屏可以降低液氮蒸发速率。     

Numerical study of liquid nitrogen cavitating flow through nozzles of various shapes

The cavitating flow of cryogenic liquid through a spray nozzle is influenced by many factors, such as unique thermophysical properties of cryogenic liquid, the inflow temperature and the complicated geometrical structure of the spray nozzle. The geometrical parameters of liquid nitrogen spray nozzles have a profound impact on cavitating flow which in turn affects spray atomization characteristics and cooling performance. In present study, CFD simulations are performed to investigate influence of the nozzle geometry on the liquid nitrogen cavitating flow. The mixture model is used to describe the liquid-vapor two phase flow, and both the cavitation and evaporation are considered for the phase change. The predictions of mass flow of liquid nitrogen spray are validated against experimental results. The effects of geometric parameters, including the outlet orifice diameter and the length of nozzle, the inlet edge angle of orifice, the inlet corner radius of orifice, the orifice shape and different positions of swirl vanes, are investigated under a wide range of pressure difference and inflow temperature. The results show that the effects of geometric parameters on cavitating flow show different trends under subcooled conditions compared with saturated temperature conditions. The flow characteristics are more affected by the changes of the inlet edge angle, the inlet corner radius, and the orifice shape. The insert of swirl vanes has an effect on the distribution of the cavitated vapor within the orifice, but it has little influence on flow characteristics. The results could enrich our knowledge of liquid nitrogen cavitating flow in spray nozzles of various shapes.     

Mathematical modeling of falling liquid film evaporation process

A mathematical model of evaporation process from a laminar falling liquid film on a vertical plate of constant temperature is presented. The model is developed with and without interfacial shear stress due to the vapor flow at the liquid film surface. The vapor pressure drop, vapor exit velocity and cooling rate are calculated for different liquid mass flow values. It is shown that lower liquid mass flow produces higher cooling rate. The results also show that the interfacial shear stress has a considerable negative effect on the cooling rate. It is proved that there exists an optimum distance between the plates, which gives the maximum volumetric cooling rate.     

Cryogenic Interlaminar Fracture Properties of Woven Glass/Epoxy Composite Laminates Under Mixed-Mode I/III Loading Conditions

We characterize the combined Mode I and Mode III delamination fracture behavior of woven glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite laminates at cryogenic temperatures. The eight-point bending plate (8PBP) tests were conducted at room temperature, liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K) using a new test fixture. A three-dimensional finite element analysis was also performed to calculate the energy release rate distribution along the delamination front, and the delamination fracture toughnesses were evaluated for various mixed-mode I/III ratios. Furthermore, the microscopic examinations of the fracture surfaces were carried out with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and the mixed-mode I/III delamination fracture mechanisms in the woven GFRP laminates at cryogenic temperatures were assessed. The fracture properties were then correlated with the observed characteristics.     

气液两用槽车设计制造中应着重考虑的一些问题

根据某型高压低温充氧车的研制实践,对氧、氮气液两用槽车的贮槽与贮气瓶的配置、低温液体贮槽蒸发率的要求及控制、低温液体泵的安装及工作条件的保障以及槽车安全性设计等方面应重点考虑的问题进行了探讨。     

Improvement of condenser performance by phase separation confirmed experimentally and by modeling

This paper presents results of an experimental study to determine the effect of vapor–liquid separation in a header of microchannel condenser for a MAC system. R134a is used as the working fluid. A condenser with separation and a baseline condenser identical on the air side have been tested to evaluate the difference in the performance due to separation. Two categories of experiments have been conducted: the heat exchanger-level test and the system-level test. In the heat exchanger-level test, it is found that at the same inlet and outlet temperatures the separation condenser generates 1.6% to 7.4% more condensate flow rate than the baseline. The separation condenser also lowers the refrigerant exit temperature compared with the baseline at the same condensate flow rate. The improvement in the separation condenser confirms the results by a model. In the system-level test, COP is compared under the same superheat, subcooling and refrigerating capacity. System with separation condenser shows up to 6.6% a higher COP than the system with baseline condenser.     

Experimental study of cryogenic liquid turbine expander with closed-loop liquefied nitrogen system

A cryogenic liquid turbine expander is developed as a replacement for traditional Joule–Thomson valves used in the cryogenic systems for the purpose of energy saving. An experimental study was conducted to evaluate the performance of the turbine expander and is the subject of this paper. The test rig comprises a closed-loop liquefied nitrogen system, cryogenic liquid turbine expander unit, and its auxiliary and measuring systems. The test operating parameters of the turbine expander are determined on the basis of flow similarity rules. Pre-cooling of the liquid nitrogen system is first performed, and then the tests are conducted at different flow rates and speed ratios. The turbine expander flow rate, inlet and outlet pressure and temperature, rotational speed and shaft torque were measured. Experimental results and their uncertainties were analyzed and discussed. The following are demonstrated: (1) For both test cases, turbine expander peak isentropic efficiency is respectively 78.8% and 68.4% obtained at 89.6% and 92% of the design flow rate. The large uncertainties in isentropic efficiency are caused by the large enthalpy variations subjected to small measurement uncertainties in temperature and pressure. (2) Total efficiency and hydraulic efficiency of the turbine expander are obtained. They are essentially the same, since both include flow-related effects and also bearing losses. Comparisons of total efficiency and hydraulic efficiency were used to justify measurement uncertainties of different quantities, since the former involves the measured mass flow rate and enthalpy drop (being dependant on inlet and outlet temperature and pressure), while the latter involves the actual shaft power, volume flow rate, and inlet and outlet pressure. (3) Losses in flow passages and the shaft-bearing system have been inferred based on the measured turbine expander total efficiency, isentropic efficiency, and mechanical efficiency, which are respectively 57.6–74.8%, 62.1–78.8% and 89.5–96.4%. Uncertainty analysis is conducted for experimental isentropic efficiency, hydraulic efficiency, and total efficiency. The hydraulic efficiency seems to be the best measure for assessing the performance of cryogenic liquid turbine expander. (4) Isentropic efficiency versus speed ratio is obtained from the experimental data. The experimental isentropic efficiency increases with the speed ratio, and it reaches 78.8% at the largest experimental speed ratio. A higher efficiency would be achieved if the speed ratio could reach a larger value. This provides some guidance for an optimal operation of the turbine expander in the future.     

Retardation of a Heat Front in a Porous Medium Containing an Evaporating Liquid

We have investigated heat transfer in a layer of silica gel impregnated with a liquid (water, aqueous solutions of calcium and magnesium chlorides, formic acid, and carbon tetrachloride). The layer was arranged on a substrate impenetrable for vapor and it was heated from above by a concentrated light flux. It has been found that the evaporation of the liquid contained in the pores of silica gel substantially slows down the propagation of the heat front into the layer so that the effective thermal conductivity of the layer can be reduced to 0.01 W/(m·K); this value is approximately 4–20 times smaller than the values typical of the majority of standard heat-insulating materials. The time of the front lag depends on the layer thickness, density of the incident heat flux, amount of liquid in the pores, and evaporation heat of the liquid. The observed trends in the motion of the front have been described by a simple one-dimensional model that takes into account phase transition (liquid evaporation) in the interior of the porous matrix.     

Exact self-similar solution of countercurrent capillary imbibition

Consideration is given to the one-dimensional countercurrent capillary imbibition of a wetting phase (water) into a semi-infinite porous medium. A model based on consideration of the function of movement of self-similar saturation profiles is proposed. An equation is derived for it, and boundary conditions are determined. The solution of the equation gives the imbibition volume, the saturation and imbibition-flux profiles, and the parameters at entry into the medium and on the saturation front. Calculation of the imbibition indices for a sandstone sample is performed.     

An experimental study on flow patterns and heat transfer characteristics during cryogenic chilldown in a vertical pipe

In the present paper, the experimental results of a cryogenic chilldown process are reported. The physical phenomena involve unsteady two-phase vapor–liquid flow and intense boiling heat transfer of the cryogenic fluid that is coupled with the transient heat conduction inside pipe walls. The objective for the present study is to compare the chilldown rates and flow patterns between the upward flow and downward flow in a vertical pipe. Liquid nitrogen is employed as the working fluid and the test section is a vertical straight segment of a Pyrex glass pipe with an inner diameter of 8 mm. The effects of mass flow rate on the flow patterns, heat transfer characteristics and interface movement were determined through experiments performed under several different mass flow rates. Through flow visualization, measurement and analysis on the flow patterns and temperature variations, a physical explanation of the vertical chilldown is given. By observing the process and analyzing the results, it is concluded that pipe chilldown in a vertical flow is similar to that in microgravity to some extent.     

A vibration free cryostat using pulse tube cryocooler

This paper introduces a new vibration free cryostat cooled by liquid helium and a 4 K pulse tube cryocooler. The cryogenic device mounts on the sample cooling station which is cooled by liquid helium. The boil off helium is recondensed by the pulse tube cryocooler, thus the cryostat maintains zero boil off. There is no mechanical contact between the cryogenic part of the cryocooler and the sample cooling station. A bellows is used to isolate the vibration which could transfer from the cryocooler flange to the cryostat flange at the room temperature. Any vibrations generated by the operation of the cryocooler are almost entirely isolated from the cryogenic device. The cryostat provides a cooling capacity of 0.65 W at 4.21 K on the sample cooling station while maintaining a vapor pressure of 102 kPa. The sample cooling station has a very stable temperature with oscillations of less than ±3 mK during all the operations. A cryogenic microwave oscillator has been successfully cooled and operated with the cryostat.     

低温容器在水蒸气膜态凝结前后的绝热效果分析

绝热失效严重影响了低温容器的经济和安全运行。膜态凝结的出现是绝热失效最直接的表现。提出了用低温容器表面温度与空气露点温度的比较来判别低温容器的绝热是否失效的方法。理论上,分析了低温容器表面水蒸气膜态凝结出现前后的换热机理。在一个高真空多层绝热低温容器上进行了实验,测量并分析了水蒸气膜态凝结前后低温容器表面温度和液氮蒸发速度的变化。理论分析和实验均验证该方法对于判别绝热效果的有效性和可行性。