Utilization of spent PWR fuel-advanced nuclear fuel cycle of PWR／CANDU synergism

High neutron economy, on line refueling and channel design result in the unsurpassed fuel cycle flexi-bility and variety for CANDU reactors. According to the Chinese national conditions that China has both PWR and CANDU reactors and the closed cycle policy of reprocessing the spent PWR fuel is adopted, one of the advanced nu-clear fuel cycles of PWR/CANDU synergism using the reprocessed uranium of spent PWR fuel in CANDU reactor is proposed, which will save the uranium resource (-22.5%), increase the energy output (-41%), decrease the quantity of spent fuels to be disposed (-2/3) and lower the cost of nuclear poower, Because of the inherent flexibility of nuclearfuel cycle in CANDU reactor, and the low radiation level of recycled uranium(RU), which is acceptable for CANDU reactor fuel fabrication, the transition from the natural uranium to the RU can be completed without major modifica-tion of the reactor core structure and operation mode.It can be implemented in Qinshan Phase Ⅲ CANDU reactors with little or no requirement of big investment in new design. It can be expected that the reuse of recycled uranium of spent PWR fuel in CANDU reactor is a feasible and desirable strategy in China.     

CANDU堆先进燃料循环的展望

介绍ＣＡＮＤＵ堆的天然铀燃料循环以及最近开发的适合未来近期的先进燃料循环。高中子经济性,不停堆换料以及简单的燃料束设计,使得ＣＡＮＤＵ堆具有非常优良的燃料循环灵活性和多样性。     

Spent fuel reprocessing: A vital link in Indian nuclear power program

The success of the three stage Indian nuclear energy program is inter-linked with the establishment of an efficient closed fuel cycle approach with recycling of both fissile and fertile components of the spent fuel to appropriate reactor systems. The Indian reprocessing journey was started way back in 1964 with the commissioning of a plant based on PUREX technology to reprocess aluminum clad natural uranium spent fuel from the research reactor CIRUS. After achieving the basic skills, a power reactor reprocessing facility was built to reprocess spent fuel from power reactors. Adequate design and operating experience was gained from these two plants for mastering the reprocessing technology. The first plant, being the maiden venture, based on indigenous technology had to undergo many modifications during its operation and finally needed refurbishment for continued operation. Decommissioning and decontamination of this plant was carried out meticulously to allow unrestricted access to the cells for fresh installation. A third plant was built for power reactor spent fuel reprocessing to serve as a design standard for future plants with the involvement of industry. Over the years, spent fuel reprocessing based on PUREX technology has reached a matured status and can be safely deployed to meet the additional reprocessing requirements to cater to the expanding nuclear energy program. Side by side with the developments in the spent natural uranium fuel reprocessing, irradiated thoria reprocessing is also perused to develop THOREX into a robust process. The additional challenges in this domain are being addressed to evolve appropriate technological solutions. Advancements in the field of science and technology are being absorbed to meet the challenges of higher recovery combined with reduced exposure and environmental discharges.     

Recycling scheme and fuel cycle costs for twin BWRs reactors

To access possible economic advantages of reprocessing and recycling the spent fuel from nuclear power reactors against a once through policy, a proposed scenario for twin BWRs was established. Calculations for the amount of fuel that the plants will use and generate during 40 years of operation under each scenario were made. An evaluation of costs for each option applying current prices for uranium and services were then carried out. Finally a comparison between the options was made, and it was found that the recycling option is more expensive than the once through cycle by about 4%.     

The reactor physics characteristics of a transuranic mixed oxide fuel in a heavy water moderated reactor

The reprocessing actinide materials extracted from spent fuel for use in mixed oxide fuels is a key component in maximizing the spent fuel repository utility. While fast spectrum reactor technologies are being considered in order to close the fuel cycle, and transmute these actinides, there is potential to utilize existing pressurized heavy water reactors such as the CANDU^®1 design to meet these goals. The use of current thermal reactors as an intermediary step which can burn actinide based fuels can significantly reduce the fast reactor infrastructure needed. This paper examines the features of actinide mixed oxide fuel, TRUMOX, in a typical CANDU nuclear reactor. The actinide concentrations used were based on extraction from 30 year cooled spent fuel and mixed with natural uranium in 4.75% actinide MOX fuel. The WIMS-AECL model of the fuel lattice was created and the two neutron group properties were transferred to RFSP in order to create a 3 dimensional time average full core model. The model was created with typical CANDU limits on bundle and channel powers and a burnup target of 45 MWd/kgHE. The TRUMOX fuel design achieved its goals and performed well under normal operations simulations. This effort demonstrated the feasibility of using the current fleet of CANDU reactors as an intermediary step in burning reprocessed spent fuel and reducing actinide burdens within the end repository. The recycling, reprocessing and reuse of spent fuels produces a much more sustainable and efficient nuclear fuel cycle using existing and proven reactor technologies.     

Recycling of uranium from spent RBMK fuel in the nuclear fuel cycle

It is shown that there is promise in using the uranium product obtained by reprocessing spent nuclear fuel from RBMK reactors as a non-initial fuel source for thermal reactors. A technical path for spent nuclear fuel from RBMK reactors is proposed: radiochemical reprocessing and obtaining oxides of recycled uranium. Oxides of the category RBMK-poor are packed and then stored in a near-surface storage facility; oxides of the category RBMK-rich are fluoridated, and UF₆ is fed into separation production for additional enrichment to the required content of ²³⁵U. Additional advantages of recycled RBMK uranium as a source of non-initial ²³⁵U are the low content of ²³²U and the relatively low activity of spent fuel, which simplifies its reprocessing.     

2020年前我国核燃料循环情景初步研究

根据我国核电现状和中短期发展规划,对2020年前我国核电规模提出了三种预测方案,并根据各种方案对压水堆电站的核燃料循环情景进行了计算。重点研究了压水堆核电所需的铀资源、分离功,卸出的乏燃料以及乏燃料中Pu和次要锕系元素(MA)的产生量。     

Proliferation-resistant fuel options for thermal and fast reactors avoiding neptunium production

Sustainable nuclear energy production requires reuse of spent nuclear fuel while avoiding its misuse. In the paper we assume that plutonium with sufficiently high content of the Pu-238 isotope (about 6% or more) and americium from spent nuclear fuel are proliferation-resistant. On the other hand, neptunium should be considered as material that is fissionable in a fast neutron spectrum and could be misused.We also assume that plutonium denatured by Pu-238 can be produced in nuclear reactors of, e.g. nuclear weapon states and used for fuel fabrication there or in multilateral reprocessing and re-fabrication centers as suggested by IAEA. Then the fabricated fuel can be utilized in nuclear reactors everywhere provided that the reactors may operate safely and the fuel remains proliferation-resistant after utilization. Options to meet these criteria are investigated in the paper for two reactor types: pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and fast reactors (FRs).In PWRs, the investigated fresh fuel compositions include denatured plutonium and depleted uranium mixed with a small amount of U-233, thorium and, optionally, with americium, presence of U-233 making the coolant void effect negative. In FRs, use of americium makes plutonium denatured, both for the burner (without fertile blanket) and breeder options. It is shown that the proposed design and fuel options are proliferation-resistant, the generation of neptunium being very low. Safety parameters are acceptable. Advanced aqueous or pyrochemical reprocessing for plutonium/thorium/uranium fuel and related fuel re-fabrication technology applying remote handling may become necessary to realize the considered fuel cycles.     

轻水堆发展规划的核燃料循环模型及优化

一、前言提高核燃料循环的经济性是增进核动力经济性极为重要的一环。国外有人提出利用动态线性规划方法,依据燃料循环中各环节内在的物理和化工过程,建立起一系列线性方     

钍铀核燃料循环研究

本文报道了中国科学院上海原子核研究所在开展钍铀燃料循环研究方面的进展和取得的成果。这些研究主要为克级量纯~(253)U的提取、钍基燃料后处理技术研究、新的铀钍萃取体系的研究、钍铀镤分离和分析方法研究、中子辐照ThO_2时产生有关核素的累积与中子积分通量和中子能谱的关系、钍的零功率试验等。本文还对钛的利用进行了评估和展望。     

Use of weapons plutonium in VVÉR-1000 reactors

One scenario for using excess Russian weapons plutonium is to load it into VVéR-1000 reactors. It is proposed that up to 40% of the fuel assemblies with uranium fuel be replaced with structurally similar fuel assemblies with mixed uranium-plutonium fuel. The stationary regime for burning fuel has the following characteristics: the run time is about 300 or 450 eff. days, the yearly plutonium consumption reaches 450 kg, the neutron-physical characteristics are close to the corresponding regimes with uranium fuel. The nuclear safety criteria and the irradiation dose for workers handling fresh and spent mixed fuel remain within the limits of the normative values. The use of mixed fuel makes it necessary to upgrade certain systems at nuclear power plants. A substantial quantity of weapons plutonium can be loaded every year into VVéR-1000 reactors, effectively using the energy potential of this plutonium. __________ Translated from Atomnaya énergiya, Vol. 103, No. 4, pp. 215–222, October, 2007.     

Economic aspects of the development of nuclear power and fuel cycle plants in the USSR

Conclusion Plutonium breeding in fast reactors themselves will not have any significant effect in the next 20–25 years on growth rate of the capacity of nuclear power stations with fast reactors.The character of the distribution of the capital expenditures on nuclear power stations and on the fuel cycle shows that the bulk of the expenditures is spent on the construction of the nuclear power stations and only 20% on the development of the fuel-cycle plants. For this reason, greatest savings of capital expenditure are given by a reduction in the construction costs of nuclear power stations by means of improvements in the design and of the reactor and the thermal and mechanical equipment of the plant.In the fuel cycle the biggest economic effect is produced by measures that lead to a reduction in the specific consumption of natural uranium since the capital expenditure on the mining operations constitutes about one-half of the total capital expenditures on the fuel cycle. The natural uranium costs also make up roughly one-half of the fuel component of the cost of electricity generated by a nuclear power station. As the price of uranium rises, this fraction of costs will also increase.Translated from Atomnaya Énergiya, Vol. 43, No. 5, pp. 365–369, November, 1977.     

加速器驱动先进核能系统的乏燃料循环再生研究北大核心CSCD

乏燃料后处理是核燃料循环的关键环节,制约核电的可持续发展。借助于加速器驱动先进核能系统(ADANES)提供的高通量、硬能谱的外源中子,其乏燃料后处理只需除去乏燃料中的挥发性裂变产物和影响次锕系元素嬗变的中子毒物,长寿命的次锕系元素Np、Am、Cm可与二氧化铀一起转化为新的燃料元件在加速器驱动燃烧器中燃烧、嬗变、增殖和产能。基于此,本课题组提出了加速器驱动的乏燃料后处理及再生制备的技术路线,包括高温氧化粉化与挥发、选择性溶解分离和燃料再生制备。本文主要介绍了近几年本课题组在这三方面所取得的一些成就,希望能为加速器驱动先进核能系统的乏燃料后处理提供基础数据。     

Radiological and environmental aspects of Th-U fuel cycle facilities

The comparatively higher level of thorium reserves and the absence of long lived actinides of environmental concern offer real advantages for utilization of thorium in nuclear reactors. While use of uranium is likely to continue for some more time in view of investments already made, a shift to thorium eventually is an imperative necessity. It is in fact inevitable for a country like India. The paper presents a detailed comparative analysis of occupational radiation exposures as well as environmental releases. Different stages such as mining, fuel fabrication, reactor operation, spent fuel storage and reprocessing are considered. The factors that need to be taken into account include among others, the relatively lower occupational exposures and environmental releases in sodium cooled fast reactors compared to LWRs, the occurrence of thorium as surface deposits obviating the need for deep mining as in the case of uranium and the special dose reduction measures that need to be devised to minimize occupational exposures due to daughter products of ²³²U present in ²³³U during fuel fabrication operations. If once through mode of fuel cycle is to be adopted, thorium oxide materials are likely to be more enduring than would be the case with uranium.     

Optimum utilization of nuclear fuel with gas and vapor core reactors

Gas and Vapor Core Reactors (G/VCR) are externally reflected and moderated nuclear energy systems fueled by stable uranium compound in gaseous or vapor phase. In G/VCR systems the functions of fuel and coolant are combined and the reactor outlet temperature is not constrained by solid fuel-cladding temperature limitations. G/VCRs can potentially provide the highest reactor and cycle temperature among all existing or proposed fission reactor designs. Furthermore, G/VCR systems feature a low inventory and fully integrated fuel cycle with exceptional sustainability and safety characteristics. With respect to fuel utilization, there is practically no fuel burn-up limit for gas core reactors due to continuous recycling of the fuel. Owing to flexibility in nuclear design characteristics of cavity reactors, a wide range of conversion ratio from almost solely a burner to a breeder is achievable. The continuous recycling of fuel in G/VCR systems allows for continuous burning and transmutation of actinides without removing and reprocessing of the fuel. The only waste product at the backend of the gas core reactors' fuel cycle is fission fragments that are continuously separated from the fuel. As a result the G/VCR systems do not require spent fuel storage or reprocessing.

G/VCR systems also feature outstanding proliferation resistance characteristics and minimum vulnerability to external threats. Even for comparable spectral characteristic, gas core reactors produce fissile plutonium two orders of magnitude less than Light Water Reactors (LWRs). In addition, the continuous transmutation and burning of actinides further reduces the quality of the fissile plutonium inventory. The low fuel inventory (about two orders of magnitude lower than LWRs for the same power generation level) combined with continuous burning of actinides, significantly reduces the need for emergency planning and the vulnerability to external threats. Low fuel inventory, low fuel heat content, and online separation of fission fragments are among the key constituent safety features of G/VCR systems.     

Nuclear power technologies at the stage of sustainable nuclear power development

It is not simple to solve the problem of competitiveness of nuclear power technologies in evolutionary upgrading the conventional nuclear power plants (NPP) such as light water reactors (LWR), which requires high expenditure for safety. Moreover, the existing LWRs cannot provide nuclear power (NP) for a long time (hundreds of years) because the efficiency of use of natural uranium is low and closing the nuclear fuel cycle (NFC) for those reactors is not expedient.The highlighted problem can be solved in the way of use of innovative nuclear power technology in which natural uranium power potential is used effectively and the intrinsic conflict between economic and safety requirements has been essentially mitigated.The technology that is most available and practically demonstrated is the use of reactors SVBR-100 — small power multi-purpose modular fast reactors (100 MWe) cooled by lead-bismuth coolant (LBC). This technology has been mastered for nuclear submarines’ reactors in Russia.High technical and economical parameters of the NPP based on RF SVBR-100 are determined from the fact that the potential energy stored in LBC per a volume unit is the lowest.The compactness of the reactor facility SVBR-100 that results from integral arrangement of the primary circuit equipment allows realizing renovation of power-units LWRs, the vessels’ lifetime of which has been expired. So due to this fact, high economical efficiency can be obtained.The paper also validates the economical advantage of launching the uranium-fueled fast reactors with further changeover to the closed NFC with use of plutonium extracted from the own spent nuclear fuel in comparison with launching fast reactors directly with on uranium-plutonium fuel on the basis of plutonium extraction from spent nuclear fuel of LWRs.     

The history and the prospects of japanese nuclear power development program

FBRs are regarded as the most probable option among non-fossil energy resources which will underpin the future energy demand in Japan, considering the effective uranium utilization and the need to lower the burden on the natural environment. However, it will take a long time to utilize FBRs due to a number of pending technical issues and improvements of cost efficiency. For the time being, therefore, light water reactors will continue to play a dominant role in power generation: thus, it is urgently necessary to establish the quasi-domestic nuclear fuel cycle for them, especially in the field of enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing — a goal of the Japanese nuclear policy since the dawn. Furthermore, public acceptance is significant factor which must be considered. This can best be achieved by more safety performance of light water reactors and through publication of extensive information, including decisions by the industry and government.     

压水堆核燃料循环情景模式初步研究

根据我国核电发展现状和中长期发展规划及中长期（2030、2050）发展战略研究,假设2050年前我国压水堆核电发展规模,基于压水堆乏燃料后处理,回收的钚做成MOX燃料放入压水堆中使用,MOX燃料只使用1次的循环模式,进行核能发展情景研究。基于压水堆可装载30%比例MOX燃料的已有研究结果,考虑我国主要的两种压水堆堆型M310和AP1000,进行压水堆核燃料循环分析。利用核能发展情景动态分析程序DESAE-2,给出了不同情景模式下天然铀需求量、乏燃料累计量等。结果表明：至2050年,B₁和B₂模式较A模式分别节省天然铀4.1万t和2.9万t。     

Possibilities of BREST reactors and transmutation fuel cycle under conditions implementing modern plans for the development of nuclear power

The possible dynamics of the development of BREST-1200 fast reactor capacities after 2030 on the basis of plutonium and other actinides accumulated in the spent fuel of thermal reactors is examined. It is shown that by 2100 the power BREST reactors could be 114–176 GW, and subsequently they will develop as a result of their own breeding of plutonium. Calculations have shown that the rate at which BREST reactors are put into operation can be doubled by using enriched uranium obtained from natural uranium and regenerated spent fuel from thermal reactors. It is shown that the development of fast reactors with a closed fuel cycle solves the problem of transmutation of long-lived high-level actinides and makes it possible to implement a transmutation fuel cycle in nuclear power. __________ Translated from Atomnaya énergiya,Vol. 103, No. 1, pp. 21–28, July, 2007.     

陶瓷电熔炉在动力堆高放废液玻璃固化中适用性分析

随着我国核电事业发展和核燃料循环体系日益完善,玻璃固化动力堆高放废液的需求已提上日程。为探讨陶瓷电熔炉技术在我国后续动力堆高放废液玻璃固化项目中的适用性,本文从源项、熔炉技术特点和熔炉更换解体三个方面进行了分析,认为陶瓷电熔炉技术可以用于玻璃固化动力堆产生的高放废液。