Energy conservation programmes A review of state initiatives in the USA

In the USA states have initiated four types of non-utility programmes to promote energy conservation and renewable energy: tax incentives, grant and loan programmes, regulations and standards, and research and development programmes. Based on a survey, there is a wide variation among the states in the extent to which these programmes have been initiated and implemented. The states have conducted few evaluation studies assessing the effectiveness of their programmes. There appear to be two factors influencing a state's involvement in these programmes: the dependence of the state on outside energy sources and the political nature of the state.     

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by inducing energy conservation and distributed generation from elimination of electric utility customer charges

This paper quantifies the increased greenhouse gas emissions and negative effect on energy conservation (or “efficiency penalty”) due to electric rate structures that employ an unavoidable customer charge. First, the extent of customer charges was determined from a nationwide survey of US electric tariffs. To eliminate the customer charge nationally while maintaining a fixed sum for electric companies for a given amount of electricity, an increase of 7.12% in the residential electrical rate was found to be necessary. If enacted, this increase in the electric rate would result in a 6.4% reduction in overall electricity consumption, conserving 73 billion kW h, eliminating 44.3 million metric tons of carbon dioxide, and saving the entire US residential sector over $8 billion per year. As shown here, these reductions would come from increased avoidable costs, thus leveraging an increased rate of return on investments in energy efficiency, energy conservation behavior, distributed energy generation, and fuel choices. Finally, limitations of this study and analysis are discussed and conclusions are drawn for proposed energy policy changes.     

Energy conservation investments: A comparison between China and the US

Growth in energy consumption in China has soared from 2001 to 2004, driven largely by a booming economy and heavy investment in infrastructure and housing. In response, China has poured billions of dollars of investment in building power plants—at a rate of one large power plant (1000 MW) per week. In fact, China in 2004 has added the entire generating capacity of California or Spain in a single year. In contrast, investment in energy conservation projects has weakened considerably in recent years. This paper examines trends in energy efficiency investments in China and the US. The comparison highlights the potential of energy conservation investments in addressing China's current energy crisis as well as the inadequacy of such investments in China. Finally, the paper outlines a few scenarios for appropriate levels of investments in energy efficiency in China in the future.     

Energy and cost analysis for greenhouse and open-field grape production

The objective of this study was to examine the energy use patterns and cost of production in greenhouse and open-field grape production. Data used in the study were obtained from the experiment conducted at the Akdeniz university research field. In the study, energy values were calculated by multiplying the amount of inputs and outputs by the related energy conversion factors. The results indicated that total input energy use in greenhouse and open-field production was found to be 24513.0 and 23640.9 MJ/ha, respectively. However, the output energy of greenhouse grapes (73396.0 MJ/ha) was lower than open-field grapes (120596 MJ/ha). The output–input ratio for greenhouse and open-field grape production was found to be 2.99 and 5.10, respectively. The economic analysis revealed that production costs for greenhouse grapes were higher than open-field grapes but greenhouse grapes were more profitable than open-field due to premium prices for greenhouse grapes.     

Energy conservation in traffic

This paper discusses the energy that is being wasted in the transport section in Amman due to three main factors: namely, the time delay at the major traffic light intersections, the warming up periods of vehicles, and the drag force acting on heavy vehicles. It was found that the fuel which is being used due to the first and second factors contribute 2.2 and 3.0% to the total annual fuel cost in Jordan. Finally, recommendations and suggestions are given to cut down the fuel consumption in Amman due to the above mentioned factors.     

Energy conservation in the industrial sector of developing countries

This paper begins by examining the most energy-intensive industries and methods by which fuel efficiency can be improved. Next the author analyses the economics of energy conservation using specific case studies drawn from India. It is shown that investing in energy efficiency is more economical Btu per Btu than investing in the enhancement of domestic energy resources. The author also assesses changes in the economics of conservation for private firms when there are government incentives. Finally government policies that can overcome economic and non-economic disincentives for investing in energy conservation are examined.     

Energy use patterns and econometric models of major greenhouse vegetable productions in Iran

This paper examines the energy use patterns and energy input-output analysis of major greenhouse vegetable productions in Iran. Data from 43 farmers were obtained using a face-to-face questionnaire method. The majority of farmers in the surveyed region were growing cucumber and tomato. Total input energy was found to be 141493.51 and 131634.19 MJ ha⁻¹ for cucumber and tomato productions, respectively. Among input energy sources, diesel fuel and fertilizers contained highest energy with 54.17-49.02% and 21.64-24.01%, respectively. The energy ratio was found to be 0.69 and 1.48 for cucumber and tomato productions, respectively. Econometric model evaluation showed the impact of human labor for cucumber and chemicals for tomato was significant at 1% levels. Sensitivity analysis indicated that the MPP value of energy inputs were between −5.87 and 7.74. RTS (returns to scale) values for cucumber and tomato yields were found to be 1.29 and 0.76; thus, there prevailed an IRS of cucumber for estimated model. The net return was found positive, as 22651.13 and 78125.08 $ ha⁻¹ for cucumber and tomato, respectively. The benefit-cost ratios from cucumber and tomato productions were calculated to be 1.68 and 3.28, respectively. Among the surveyed greenhouses, the result indicated tomato cultivation was more profitable.     

Energy conservation : An elasticity of substitution approach

Long-term forecasts of demand, used in energy planning, are based on assumptions alleged to be reasonable at the time of projections. The political debate can then focus on whether these assumptions are indeed reasonable. Common considers two sets of projections, and estimates the implicit price and income elasticities, thereby translating assumptions entailed in two different reports into concepts which are directly comparable. It is argued here that this approach need be taken a step further and elasticities of substitution between energy and other inputs should be calculated. Possibilities of energy conservation could then be taken into account.     

Energy conservation policies in Jordan

Jordan imports almost all the energy required for its social and economic development. During the period 1974–1984, energy consumption grew at an average rate of about 14%/year, due mainly to growth in the national economy; but exacerbated by inefficient use of energy. To alleviate the burden of the energy bill on the economy, the Ministry of Energy has adopted a policy aimed at securing sufficient energy supplies at minimum cost to the economy. This policy has focused on improving the efficiency of energy-use and encouraging energy conservation in order to reduce the effect of oil imports on foreign reserves, reduce the impact of emissions of toxic gases on the environment, and the cost of additional investment in production facilities. The energy conservation programme was put into application in early 1985. The energy income elasticity during the period 1985–1988 has dropped from (1.4) to (1), which indicates a substantial improvement in overall energy utilization.     

Energy conservation potential in Taiwanese textile industry

Since Taiwan lacks sufficient self-produced energy, increasing energy efficiency and energy savings are essential aspects of Taiwan’s energy policy. This work summarizes the energy savings implemented by 303 firms in Taiwan’s textile industry from the on-line Energy Declaration System in 2008. It was found that the total implemented energy savings amounted to 46,074 ton of oil equivalent (TOE). The energy saving was equivalent to 94,614 MWh of electricity, 23,686 kl of fuel oil and 4887 ton of fuel coal. It represented a potential reduction of 143,669 ton in carbon dioxide emissions, equivalent to the annual carbon dioxide absorption capacity of a 3848 ha plantation forest. This study summarizes energy-saving measures for energy users and identifies the areas for making energy saving to provide an energy efficiency baseline.     

Energy conservation through recycling

A critical review of the literature is used to suggest best estimates of the energy savings due to recycling one tonne of a number of materials. the use of these estimates is demonstrated by a number of illustrative applications. Substantial energy savings may be made by recycling most metals or paper. the savings from reclaiming glass cullet are marginal, although there is considerable potential for energy conservation through the substitution of returnable for non-returnable bottles. the recycling of materials already saves some 5 per cent of the U.K. total energy requirement, and this contribution could potentially be doubled. the recovery of fuel products and/or materials from solid waste is also shown to be an attractive and efficient energy source.     

Energy conservation in subway systems by controlled acceleration and deceleration

The 1975 electric bill for propulsion in the New York City subway system was close to 90 million dollars. This paper addresses the question of how a subway motorman should run his train in order to minimize this energy consumption. It is shown that using maximum acceleration followed at the appropriate time by coasting, and then braking at the maximum acceptable rate, gives a particularly low energy consumption for typical subway trains (although slightly different velocity profiles can be better under appropriate circumstances). This velocity profile is relatively easy to implement, and has now been proved effective in experimental tests. As a result of recommendations reported here, the New York City Transit Authority ran idealized tests of the profile, followed by recently completed tests in revenue service which demonstrated an 18.4 per cent decrease in energy consumption using a daily weighted increase of 4.25 per cent in trip time. This paper also evaluates the energy saved using an alternative method involving equipment modification for field shunting in the series mode.     

Energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions during the production of a passenger car in China

Rapidly-rising oil demand and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from road vehicles in China, passenger cars in particular, have attracted worldwide attention. As most studies to date were focused on the vehicle operation stage, the present study attempts to evaluate the energy demand and GHG emissions during the vehicle production process, which usually consists of two major stages—material production and vehicle assembly. Energy demand and GHG emissions in the material production stage are estimated using the following data: the mass of the vehicle, the distribution of material used by mass, and energy demand and GHG emissions associated with the production of each material. Energy demand in the vehicle assembly stage is estimated as a linear function of the vehicle mass, while the associated GHG emission is estimated according to the primary energy sources. It is concluded that the primary energy demand, petroleum demand and GHG emissions during the production of a medium-sized passenger car in China are 69,108 MJ, 14,545 MJ and 6575 kg carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂-eq). Primary energy demand, petroleum demand and GHG emissions in China’s passenger car fleets in 2005 would be increased by 22%, 5% and 30%, respectively, if the vehicle production stage were included.     

Energy conservation in electrical water heating in buckets

In the present paper a techno-economic analysis for electrical water heating in buckets is presented, and the methods for improving the efficiency of the use of electricity have been evaluated. The mathematical model developed has been validated by experiments. The use of a floating cover is seen to increase the efficiency of utilization of electricity in winter conditions by about 20 per cent. Assuming conservatively a hot water demand of 40 litres/day in the winter season, the use of a cover costing Rs 8 leads to a saving of about Rs 56 per year in the electricity bill.     

Energy conservation on Nova Scotia farms: Baseline energy data

Direct energy use is a small but essential component of the farm greenhouse gas (GHG) budget. Improvements in energy efficiency and renewable energy can help reduce farm operating costs, improve air quality and reduce GHG emission levels. Energy conservation is especially important in Nova Scotia (NS), Canada, where fossil fuels, particularly coal, remain the primary source of electrical generation. Responses from mail surveys were used to establish baseline data on a cross-section of NS farms with respect to direct energy costs and usage to demonstrate differences in farm type and size. A 32% (N=224) response rate was achieved. Based on this survey, the average energy bill for a NS farm in 2004 was $11,228, with most (61.7%) of their energy cost attributable to the purchase of petroleum products. Almost all farmers (96.4%) indicated that their energy cost was a primary concern. Farmers identified the operation of vehicles and mobile equipment, as well as lighting and heating as having the greatest energy requirements in their operations. Energy usage varied with farm type and size. NS farms consumed 1.2 petajoules of energy equivalent to 127 kilotonnes of CO₂ with 52.7% of emissions from electricity use in 2004.     

Economical analysis and relation between energy inputs and yield of greenhouse cucumber production in Iran

This paper studies the energy balance between the input and the output per unit area for greenhouse cucumber production. For this purpose, the data on 43 cucumber production greenhouses in the Tehran province, Iran, were collected and analyzed. The results indicated that a total energy input of 148836.76 MJ ha⁻¹ was consumed for cucumber production. Diesel fuel (with 41.94%) and chemical fertilizers (with 19.69%) were amongst the highest energy inputs for cucumber production. The energy productivity was estimated as 0.80 kg MJ⁻¹. The ratio of energy output to energy input was approximately 0.64. Results indicate 10.93% and 89.07% of total energy input was in renewable and non-renewable forms, respectively. The regression results revealed that the contribution of energy inputs on crop yield (except for fertilizers and seeds energies) was significant. The human labour energy had the highest impact (0.35) among the other inputs in greenhouse cucumber production. Econometric analysis indicated that the total cost of production for one hectare of cucumber production was around 33425.70 $. Accordingly, the benefit–cost ratio was estimated as 2.58.     

Energy conservation topics at energex ′84

International Energy conservation developments and programmes for institutional buildings, industrial processes, agricultural operations, residential buildings, land use planning and transport services are summarized. The topics were presented by experts to an international audience at ENERGEX ′84 held in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada during May 1984.     

Energy conservation and productivity growth: Can we have both?

Rapid multifactor productivity growth and strong improvements in energy efficiency have occurred simultaneously over long periods of time in the USA. Not so, however, after 1973 when energy efficiency made substantial gains while productivity growth languished. Based upon an examination of US data, this article argues that the key to achieving both energy conservation and multifactor productivity growth at the same time has been to use energy in conjunction with technologies that achieve more efficient means of combining all production inputs, instead of emphasizing technologies in which energy conservation alone is the over-riding objective.     

Energy resources' utilization in organic and conventional vineyards: Energy flow, greenhouse gas emissions and biofuel production

An energy analysis, in conventional and organic vineyards, combined with ethanol production and greenhouse gas emissions, is useful in evaluating present situation and deciding best management strategies. The objective of this study was to evaluate the differences in the energy flow between organic and conventional vineyards in three locations, to calculate CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O-emissions based on the used fossil energy and to explore if wine industry wastes can be used to extract bioethanol. The data were collected through personal interviews with farmers during 2004–2005. Eighteen farmers, who owned vineyards about 1 ha each, were randomly selected to participate in this study [(3 conventional and 3 organic) × 3 locations]. The means averaged over all locations for fertilizer application, plant protection products application, transportation, harvesting, labor, machinery, fuels, plant protections products and tools energy inputs, total energy inputs, outputs (grapes), outputs (grapes + shoots), grape yield, man hour, pomace and ethanol from pomace were significantly higher in conventional than in organic vineyards, while the opposite occurred for the pruning. Means averaged over two farming systems for harvesting, tools energy inputs, energy outputs (grapes), grape yield, pomace and ethanol from pomace were significantly higher at location A, followed by location C and location B. Finally, for irrigation, the means averaged over the two farming systems were significantly lower at location C. Greenhouse gas emissions were significant lower in organic than in conventional vineyards. The results show a clear response of energy inputs to energy outputs that resulted from the farming system and location.     

Energy intensities and greenhouse gas emission mitigation in global agriculture

Energy efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions are closely linked. This paper reviews agricultural options to reduce energy intensities and their impacts, discusses important accounting issues related to system boundaries, land scarcity, and measurement units and compares agricultural energy intensities and improvement potentials on an international level. Agricultural development in recent decades, while increasing yields, has led to lower average energy efficiencies when comparing the 1960s and the mid 1980s. In the two decades thereafter, energy intensities in developed countries increased, but with little impact on greenhouse gas emissions. Efficiency differences across countries in the year 2000 suggest a maximum improvement potential of 500 million tons of CO₂ annually. If only below average countries would increase their energy efficiency to average levels of the year 2000, the resulting emission reductions would be below 200 million tons of CO₂ annually.