Microstructure Evolution and Strain-Dependent Constitutive Modeling to Predict the Flow Behavior of 20Cr–24Ni–6Mo Super-Austenitic Stainless Steel During Hot Deformation

Hot compression tests were carried out with specimens of 20 Cr–24 Ni–6 Mo super-austenitic stainless steel at strain rate from 0.01 to 10 s~(-1) in the temperature range from 950 to 1150 °C, and flow behavior was analyzed. Microstructure analysis indicated that dynamic recrystallization(DRX) behavior was more sensitive to the temperature than strain rate, and full DRX was obtained when the specimen deformed at 1150 °C. When the temperature reduced to 1050 °C, full DRX was completed at the highest strain rate 10 s~(-1) rather than at the lowest strain rate 0.01 s~(-1) because the adiabatic heating was pronounced at higher strain rate. In addition, flow behavior reflected in flow curves was inconsistent with the actual microstructural evolution during hot deformation, especially at higher strain rates and lower temperatures. Therefore, flow curves were revised in consideration of the effects of adiabatic heating and friction during hot deformation. The results showed that adiabatic heating became greater with the increase of strain level, strain rate and the decrease of temperature, while the frictional effect cannot be neglected at high strain level. Moreover, based on the revised flow curves, strain-dependent constitutive modeling was developed and verified by comparing the predicted data with the experimental data and the modified data. The result suggested that the developed constitutive modeling can more adequately predict the flow behavior reflected by corrected flow curves than that reflected by experimental flow curves, even though some difference existed at 950 °C and0.01 s~(-1). The main reason was that plenty of precipitates generated at this deformation condition and affected the DRX behavior and deformation behavior, eventually resulted in dramatic increase of deformation resistance.     

Hot Deformation Behavior and Processing Map of a Cu-Bearing 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel

The hot deformation behavior and processing map of Cu-bearing 2205 duplex stainless steel(2205-Cu DSS) were investigated at temperatures of 950-1150℃and strain rates of 0.01-10 s~(-1).The effects of Cu addition and different deformation parameters on deformation behavior were,respectively,characterized by analyzing flow curves,constitutive equations and microstructures.The results indicated that the shapes of flow curves strongly depended on the volume fraction of two phases.When deformed at low strain rate,DRV in ferrite was prompted with increase in the temperature and was further developed to continuous DRX.At high strain rate,flow localization preferentially occurred in ferrite at low deformation temperature due to the strain partitioning and relatively less fraction of ferrite.The activation energy for 2205-Cu DSS was 452 kJ/mol and was found to connect with the variation of strain,strain rate and deformation temperature.The optimum hot deformation parameters for 2205-Cu DSS were obtained in the temperature range of 1100-1150℃and strain rate range of 0.1-1 s~(-1)with a peak power dissipation efficiency of 41%.Flow localization was the main way to lead to flow instability.Meanwhile,the Cu-rich precipitates were generated within a few ferrite grains when deformed at temperature lower than 1000℃.The interaction between dislocations and Cu-rich precipitates at high strain rate,as well as the limited DRV in ferrite and DRX in austenite,contributed to the complex microstructure and flow behavior.     

Hot Deformation Behavior of a New Nuclear Use Reduced Activation Ferritic/Martensitic Steel

The hot deformation behavior and workability of a new reduced activation ferritic/martensitic steel named SIMP steel for accelerator-driven system were studied.The flow curve and its microstructure were studied at 900-1200℃ and strain rate range of 0.001-10 s~(-1).The results showed that the deformation behavior of the SIMP steel during hot compression could be manifested by the Zener-Hollomon parameter in an exponent-type equation.Based on the obtained constitutive equation,the calculated flow stresses were in agreement with the experimentally measured ones,and the average activity energies QDRV and QHW for the initiation of dynamic recrystallization and the peak strain were calculated to be 476.1 kJ/mol and 462.7 kJ/mol,respectively.Furthermore,based on the processing maps and microstructure evolution,the optimum processing condition for the SIMP steel was determined to be 1050-1200 ℃/0.001-0.1 s~(-1).     

Hot Deformation Behavior of an Ultra-High-Strength Fe–Ni–Co-Based Maraging Steel

Hot processing behavior of an ultra-high-strength Fe–Ni–Co-based maraging steel was studied in temperature range of 900–1200 °C and strain rate range of 0.001–10 s~(-1). Deformation processing parameters and optimum hot working window were characterized via flow stress analysis, constitutive equation construction, hot processing map calculation and microstructure evolution, respectively. Critical strain value for dynamic recrystallization was determined through theoretical mathematical differential method: the inflection point of θ–σ and -αθ/ασ-σ curves. It was found that the flow stress increased with the decrease in deformation temperature and increase in the strain rate. The power dissipation maps in the strain range of 0.1–0.6 were entirely similar with the tendency of contour lines which implied that strain had no strong effect on the dissipation maps. Nevertheless, the instability maps showed obvious strain sensitivity with increasing strain, which was ascribed to the flow localization and instability. The optimized hot processing window of the experimental steel was obtained as 1100–1200 °C/0.001–1 s~(-1) and 1000–1100 °C/0.001–0.1 s~(-1), with the efficiency range of 20–40%. Owing to high Mo content in the experimental steel, high dynamic activation energy, Q = 439.311 kJ mol~(-1), was achieved, indicating that dynamic recrystallization was difficult to occur in the hot deformation process, which was proved via microstructure analysis under different hot deformation conditions.     

Hot Deformation Behavior and Processing Maps of a High Al-low Si Transformation-Induced Plasticity Steel: Microstructural Evolution and Flow Stress Behavior

Hot deformation behavior of a high Al-low Si transformation-induced plasticity(TRIP) steel was studied by an MMS-300 thermo-simulation machine at the temperature range of 1050–1200℃ and strain rate range of 0.01–10s~(-1). The constitutive equations of the TRIP steel were established at high temperature by fitting the strain factor with a sixth-order polynomial. The instability during hot rolling was discussed using processing maps. The results reveal that two types of flow stress curves(dynamic recrystallization and dynamic recovery) were observed during the hot compression of the high Al-low Si TRIP steel. Flow stress decreased with increasing deformation temperature and decreasing strain rate. The predicted flow stress of experimental TRIP steel is in agreement with the experimental values with an average absolute relative error of 4.49% and a coefficient of determination of 0.9952. According to the obtained processing maps, the TRIP steel exhibits a better workability at strain rate of 0.1s~(-1) and deformation temperature of 1200℃ as compared to other deformation conditions.     

Hot Deformation Behavior and Hardness of a CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloy with High Content of Carbon

A CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy with a high content of carbon was synthesized, and its hot deformation behavior was studied at the temperatures 800–1000 ℃ at the strain rates ranging from 0.001 to 0.1 s~(-1).As-prepared alloy is a face-centered cubic-structured solid solution, with a large amount of carbides residing at grain boundaries.True stress–strain curves were employed to develop the constitutive equation of apparent activation energy.The apparent activation energy( Q) was found to be 423 kJ mol~(-1), indicating a dynamic flow softening behavior.The size of dynamic recrystallized(DRXed) grains increases with increasing the temperature or decreasing the strain rate.A processing map was sketched on the basis of the flow stress.The temperature range of 900–1000 ℃ and 10~(-3)–10~(-2.6) s~(-1) strain rate were found to be the optimum hot-forging parameter.With increasing temperature or decreasing strain rate, the volume fraction of fine carbides(≤ 1 μm) increases.A lot of coarse carbides can be found in the matrix after deformation at 800 ℃, which leads to a high hardness value of 345 HV.The carbides after deformation at 1000 ℃ are mainly nano-sized M_7C_3 and M_(23)C_6, which can promote the nucleation of DRX.     

Development of Constitutive Equation and Processing Maps for IN706 Alloy

The hot deformation behavior of IN706 has been investigated by means of hot compression tests in the temperature range of 900–1150 °C and strain rate range of 0.001–1 s-1.The constitutive equation was developed on the basis of experimental data.Power dissipation efficiency(η) and instability parameter(ξ) maps were evaluated using the principles of the dynamic material model.Furthermore,the EBSD microstructure analysis was performed for validation,revealing that g was closely associated with the mechanism of dynamic recrystallization(DRX).Microstructure transition map was composed of contour plots of η,ξ,and DRX.The DRX domain zones and instable zones were identified in the processing map and were classified based on g.In a view of microstructure refinement and workability improvement,the optimum processing should be selected in the temperature range of 970–1025 °C and the strain rate range of 0.08–0.01 s-1.     

Influence of Vanadium Content on Hot Deformation Behavior of Low-Carbon Boron Microalloyed Steel

Single-pass compression tests were performed to investigate the hot deformation behavior of low-carbon boron microalloyed steel containing three various vanadium contents at 900-1100℃ and strain rate of 0.01-10 s~(-1) using the MMS-300 thermal mechanical simulator.The flow stress curves of investigated steels were obtained under the different deformation conditions,and the effects of the deformation temperature and strain rate on the flow stress were discussed.The characteristic points of flow stress were obtained from the stress dependence of strain hardening rate;the activation energy of investigated steels was determined by the regression analysis;the flow stress constitutive equations were developed;the effect of vanadium content on the flow stress and dynamic recrystallization(DRX) was investigated.The result showed that the flow stress and activation energy(3-6.5 kJ mol~(-1)) of the steel containing 0.18 wt% V were significantly higher than those of the steels with0.042 wt% and 0.086 wt% V,which was related to the increase in solute drag and precipitation effects for higher vanadium content.DRX analysis showed that the addition of vanadium can delay the initiation and the rate of DRX.     

DH780钢的热变形行为及热加工图

采用Thermecmastor-Z热模拟试验机研究了试验钢在800~1150 ℃、应变速率0.01~10 s^-1的热压缩变形行为,并观察变形后显微组织。基于试验数据分析,确定了试验钢在奥氏体区的热变形方程,建立试验钢在0.8真应变下的热加工图。结果表明:试验钢的流变应力和峰值应变随变形温度的升高而减小;试验钢在奥氏体区的热变形激活能为385.91 kJ/mol。根据试验钢功率耗散及流变失稳判据确定最佳热加工工艺参数为热变形温度范围1050~1150 ℃和应变速率0.01~0.1 s^-1。在该范围内,试验钢发生完全动态再结晶,功率耗散系数为17%~32%。     

Deformation Mechanism and Hot Workability of Extruded Magnesium Alloy AZ31

Using the flow stress curves obtained by Gleeble thermo-mechanical testing, the processing map of extruded magnesium alloy AZ31 was established to analyze the hot workability. Stress exponent and activation energy were calculated to characterize the deformation mechanism. Then, the effects of hot deformation parameters on deformation mechanism,microstructure evolution and hot workability of AZ31 alloy were discussed. With increasing deformation temperature, the operation of non-basal slip systems and full development of dynamic recrystallization(DRX) contribute to effective improvement in hot workability of AZ31 alloy. The influences of strain rate and strain are complex. When temperature exceeds 350 °C, the deformation mechanism is slightly dependent of the strain rate or strain. The dominant mechanism is dislocation cross-slip, which favors DRX nucleation and grain growth and thus leads to good plasticity. At low temperature(below 350 °C), the deformation mechanism is sensitive to strain and strain rate. Both the dominant deformation mechanism and inadequate development of DRX deteriorate the ductility of AZ31 alloy. The flow instability mainly occurs in the vicinity of 250 °C and 1 s-1.     

Hot Working Characteristic of Superaustenitic Stainless Steel 254SMO

Hot deformation characteristic of superaustenitic stainless steel 254SMO has been studied by isothermal compression testing in the temperature range of 950–1,200 °C and strain rate range of 0.01–10 s-1.The activation energy of 496 kJ/mol was calculated by a hyperbolic-sine type equation over the entire range of strain rates and temperatures.In order to obtain optimum hot working conditions,processing maps consisting of power dissipation map and instability map were constructed at different strains.The power dissipation map exhibits two domains with relatively high efficiencies of power dissipation.The first domain occurs in the temperature range of 990–1,070 °C and the strain rate range of0.01–0.1 s-1.Microstructure observation in this domain indicates the partial dynamic recrystallization(DRX) accompanied with precipitation of tetragonal sigma phase.The second domain occurs in the temperature range of 1,140–1,200 °C and the strain rate range of 0.01–1 s-1with a peak efficiency of power dissipation of 39%,and in this domain,the microstructure observation reveals the full DRX.The instability map shows that flow instability occurs at the temperatures below 1,140 °C and the strain rates above 0.1 s-1.     

Hot Deformation and Dynamic Recrystallization Behavior of Austenite-Based Low-Density Fe–Mn–Al–C Steel

The hot deformation and dynamic recrystallization(DRX) behavior of austenite-based Fe–27Mn–11.5Al–0.95 C steel with a density of 6.55 g cm-3were investigated by compressive deformation at the temperature range of900–1150 °C and strain rate of 0.01–10 s-1. Typical DRX behavior was observed under chosen deformation conditions and yield-point-elongation-like effect caused by DRX of d-ferrite. The flow stress characteristics were determined by DRX of the d-ferrite at early stage and the austenite at later stage, respectively. On the basis of hyperbolic sine function and linear fitting, the calculated thermal activation energy for the experimental steel was 294.204 k J mol-1. The occurrence of DRX for both the austenite and the d-ferrite was estimated and plotted by related Zener–Hollomon equations. A DRX kinetic model of the steel was established by flow stress and peak strain without considering dynamic recovery and d-ferrite DRX. The effects of deformation temperature and strain rate on DRX volume fraction were discussed in detail. Increasing deformation temperature or strain rate contributes to DRX of both the austenite and the d-ferrite, whereas a lower strain rate leads to the austenite grains growth and the d-ferrite evolution, from banded to island-like structure.     

X12CrMoWVNbN钢的热变形行为及热加工图

利用Gleeble3180热模拟试验机,在变形温度为950~1100 ℃,应变速率为0.001~1 s^-1,真应变为0.7的条件下,对X12CrMoWVNbN钢进行了高温单向热压缩试验。通过不同条件下的高温流变曲线分析了变形温度和应变速率对试验钢热变形力学行为的影响。以Arrhenius方程为本构模型,建立了能够预测该钢流动应力的本构方程。基于动态材料模型和试验参数、结果,绘制了该钢不同应变量下的热加工图并结合图进行了组织分析。结果表明,流变峰值应力和稳态应力随温度降低或应变速率升高而升高;功率耗散系数随应变速率降低和变形温度的升高而增大;最优热加工区域功率耗散系数η的值都在0.4以上,且这些区域的变形组织晶粒均匀细小;0.3、0.4、0.5和0.6应变下的最优热加工区域都处于变形温度1050~1100 ℃、应变速率0.001~0.003 s^-1的范围。     

基于位错密度理论的核级316LN不锈钢高温本构模型

研究了316LN奥氏体不锈钢在1050~1200 ℃、应变速率0.1,1和50 s^-1下的压缩变形行为,分析了变形温度和应变速率对热流曲线的影响。基于位错密度理论,建立了316LN钢的热变形本构模型,并揭示了316LN钢的软化机理。结果表明,在高温低应变速率（小于0.1 s^-1）条件下,动态再结晶（DRX）为主导软化机理;在高温高应变速率（大于1 s^-1）条件下,动态回复（DRV）为主导软化机理;在高温及应变速率为0.1和1 s^-1条件下,DRV和DRX共同作用。构建的模型可以很好地预测316LN钢的热变形行为,其Pearson相关系数为0.9956,平均相对误差绝对值为3.07%,为一个精确的本构模型。     

13Cr超级马氏体不锈钢热压缩变形行为与组织演变

通过Gleeble-3500热模拟试验机对13Cr超级马氏体不锈钢进行单道次压缩变形试验,系统研究变形温度在950~1150 ℃、应变速率为0.001~10 s^-1条件下的热变形行为。利用双曲正弦模型建立了13Cr超级马氏体不锈钢的流变应力本构方程,求得试验钢的热变形激活能为412 kJ/mol,并基于动态材料模型(DMM)理论绘制了材料的热加工图,得出材料的最佳热变形工艺参数窗口为:变形温度1032~1072 ℃,应变速率0.039~0.087 s^-1。组织演变结果表明,试验钢在高变形温度和低应变速率的条件下,容易发生动态再结晶。当应变速率一定时(0.01 s^-1),变形温度从950 ℃升到1050 ℃,动态再结晶的体积分数从18.7%升高到60.1%,组织的再结晶程度提高,晶粒均匀细小;当变形温度一定时(1050 ℃),随着应变速率的降低,动态再结晶的晶粒长大粗化。     

18CrNiMo7-6齿轮钢的热变形行为及组织演变规律

利用Gleeble-3500热模拟试验机对18CrNiMo7-6齿轮钢进行了等温单道次压缩试验,研究了变形温度为900～1150℃,应变速率为0.01～5 s^-1,应变为0.76的条件下材料的热变形行为;并且通过光学显微镜对热变形后的微观组织进行了分析。建立了唯象型Arrhenius本构方程,预测的峰值应力与试验数据具有很好的一致性。高温热变形过程是加工硬化与动态回复以及动态再结晶的竞争过程,在热变形的过程中会形成变形晶粒、再结晶晶粒、等轴晶和晶粒长大等4种类型的微观组织。当应变速率为0.01 s^-1时,动态再结晶程度与变形温度成正比,当变形温度超过1050℃时,变形能转变成晶粒长大的驱动能,使得晶粒粗大;当应变温度一定(1050℃)时,随着应变速率的增大,动态再结晶发生不完全,导致晶粒组织出现细化、畸变、不完全再结晶共存的现象。变形程度越大,晶粒越细小。     

2507超级双相不锈钢的流变应力本构关系及热加工图

采用Gleeble-3800热模拟试验机研究了热变形温度为950~1200 ℃、应变速率为 0.01~10 s^-1条件下2507超级双相不锈钢的热压缩变形行为,并借助光学显微镜观察了不同变形过程中的微观组织演化。基于试验数据分析,建立2507超级双相不锈钢的流变应力本构关系及热加工图。结果表明:流变应力随着变形温度的升高和应变速率的降低而逐渐降低,在高应变速率下,流变曲线出现“类屈服平台”。试验钢的热变形激活能为414.57 kJ·mol^-1,应力指数为4.18,峰值应力本构方程为ε·=3.69×10¹⁵[sinh(0.0101σ)]^4.18exp-414.57RT,根据微观组织分析及热加工图确定出试验钢的最佳热加工区域为热压缩温度1060~1120 ℃,应变速率0.01~0.1 s^-1。     

Influence of Microstructural Evolution on the Hot Deformation Behavior of an Fe–Mn–Al Duplex Lightweight Steel

The hot deformation behavior of Fe–26 Mn–6.2 Al–0.05 C steel was studied by experimental hot compression tests in the temperature range of 800–1050 °C and strain rate range of 0.01–30 s21 on a Gleeble-3500 thermal simulation machine. The microstructural evolution during the corresponding thermal process was observed in situ by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Electron backscattered diffraction and transmission electron microscopy analyses were carried out to observe the microstructural morphology before and after the hot deformation. Furthermore, interrupted compression tests were conducted to correlate the microstructural characteristics and softening mechanisms at different deformation stages.The results showed that hot compression tests of this steel were all carried out on a duplex matrix composed of austenite and d-ferrite. As the deformation temperature increased from 800 to 1050 °C, the volume fraction of austenite decreased from 70.9% to 44.0%, while that of d-ferrite increased from 29.1% to 56.0%. Due to the different stress exponents(n) and apparent activation energies(Q), the generated strain was mostly accommodated by d-ferrite at the commencement of deformation, and then both dynamic recovery and dynamic recrystallization occurred earlier in d-ferrite than in austenite.This interaction of strain partitioning and unsynchronized softening behavior caused an abnormal hot deformation behavior profile in the Fe–Mn–Al duplex steel, such as yield-like behavior, peculiar work-hardening behavior, and dynamic softening behavior, which are influenced by not only temperature and strain rate but also by microstructural evolution.     

Characterization of the Hot Deformation Behavior of Cu–Cr–Zr Alloy by Processing Maps

Hot deformation behavior of the Cu–Cr–Zr alloy was investigated using hot compressive tests in the temperature range of 650–850 °C and strain rate range of 0.001–10 s-1. The constitutive equation of the alloy based on the hyperbolic-sine equation was established to characterize the flow stress as a function of strain rate and deformation temperature. The critical conditions for the occurrence of dynamic recrystallization were determined based on the alloy strain hardening rate curves. Based on the dynamic material model, the processing maps at the strains of 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5were obtained. When the true strain was 0.5, greater power dissipation efficiency was observed at 800–850 °C and under0.001–0.1 s-1, with the peak efficiency of 47%. The evolution of DRX microstructure strongly depends on the deformation temperature and the strain rate. Based on the processing maps and microstructure evolution, the optimal hot working conditions for the Cu–Cr–Zr alloy are in the temperature range of 800–850 °C and the strain rate range of 0.001–0.1 s-1.     

18.7Cr-1.0Ni-5.8Mn-0.2N节Ni型双相不锈钢的大变形热压缩软化行为

在1123~1423 K、0.1~10 s^-1条件下对18.7Cr-1.0Ni-5.8Mn-0.2N节Ni型双相不锈钢进行70%大变形量热压缩研究。利用OM、SEM和EBSD分析热变形组织。结果表明,铁素体动态再结晶(DRX)主要发生在1123 K较低变形温度,随应变速率增大,晶粒细化程度增加,晶粒不均匀程度减小。应变速率对铁素体DRX影响较大,而奥氏体DRX对变形温度更加敏感。在1223 K、10 s^-1条件下,铁素体相发生了以小角度晶界(LAGB)向大角度晶界(HAGB)转变的连续动态再结晶(CDRX),而在1323 K、0.1 s^-1条件下,奥氏体相以不连续动态再结晶(DDRX)为主。低应变速率条件下升高温度易诱发DDRX,而在高应变速率条件下易发生CDRX。在高温低应变条件下,奥氏体相晶粒取向主要为(001)和(111)再结晶织构,而铁素体相在(001)和(111)织构之间存在竞争关系。拟合获得临界应力(应变)并确定了其与峰值应力(应变)的关系。随着应变增加,热加工失稳区缩小,且稳定区逐渐向高温高应变速率方向移动,1323~1423 K、0.01~6.05 s^-1的热参数条件最适合热加工。