The cytochrome P450ALK multigene family of an n-alkane-assimilating yeast, Yarrowia lipolytica: cloning and characterization of genes coding for new CYP52 family members

Genes encoding cytochromes P450 of the CYP52 family in the n-alkane-assimilating yeast Yarrowia lipolytica have been cloned and analyzed. Degenerate PCR primers which were designed for the conserved amino acid sequences of cytochromes P450ALK of Candida species were used for amplification and isolation of genes encoding P450ALK from a genomic DNA library of Y. lipolytica CX161-1B. Seven new genes (YlALK2-YlALK8) were isolated. Five of the seven YlALK genes were induced by n-alkane under the culture conditions used in this study, whereas their expression was strictly repressed by glycerol but not by glucose, similar to the case of YlALK1, reported previously. Disruption of YlALK2, YlALK3, YlALK4 or YlALK6 did not change the growth of Y. lipolytica on medium containing n-alkanes of various chain lengths. A mutant with disruptions in both YlALK1 and YlALK2 did not grow well on n-hexadecane, whereas one with disruptions in both YlALK1 and YlALK3, which has the same phenotype as the YlALK1 singly disrupted mutant, grew well on n-hexadecane. These results suggest that the presence of multiple P450ALK species is a rather common phenomenon among the n-alkane-assimilating yeasts and that in the n-alkane assimilation of Y. lipolytica, YlALK1 functions to assimilate n-decane and longer molecules, whereas YlALK2 is involved in the assimilation of molecules longer than n-dodecane; other YlALKs are not significantly involved in the assimilation of C10-C16 n-alkanes.     

Nutritional requirements for detoxication of environmental chemicals.

The biological defence systems against oxygen radical toxicity and chemical toxicity, and their component enzymes, are described, and the nutritional requirements for biological defence against chemical and oxygen toxicity, including calories, protein, lipids and lipotropes, vitamins and minerals, are reviewed in the context of their contribution to the mechanisms of detoxication. Modulation of the cytochromes P-450, and hence toxicity, by dietary components are considered; the P450I family, induced by food pyrolysis mutagens, and the P450IIE family, induced by alcohol and fasting, contribute substantially to chemical toxicity and carcinogenicity. It is concluded that: (i) the detoxication system of terrestrial fauna has evolved over greater than 300 million years to protect animals from dietary plant toxins; (ii) protection against chemical and oxygen toxicity requires all categories of nutrients; and (iii) the r?le of food and nutrition in detoxication is essential to survival.     

Cytochromes P450 of the sophorose lipid-producing yeast Candida apicola: Heterogeneity and polymerase chain reaction-mediated cloning of two genes

Candida apicola belongs to a group of yeasts producing high amounts of surface-active extracellular glycolipids consisting of sophorose and long-chain-ω- and (ω-1)-hydroxy fatty acids. The involvement of cytochrome P450 in the synthesis of sophorose lipid by the hydroxylation of long-chain fatty acids was suggested from a simultaneous increase of cellular P450 content. Hydroxylation studies indicated the existence of multiple P450 forms capable of hydroxylating not only long-chain fatty acids, but also n-alkanes. In this report, two different P450 DNA fragments amplified in a polymerase chain reaction with heterologous primers and chromosomal DNA of Candida apicola were used as homologous probes for the isolation of full-length clones from a genomic library. The open reading frames of both genes encode proteins of 519 amino acids with calculated molecular weights of 58,656 and 58,631, respectively, that contain N-terminal membrane anchor sequences and hallmark residues, in common with other eukaryotic P450s. The deduced amino acid sequences of the C. apicola P450 genes are 84·4% identical. They share 34·5 to 44·1% identity with the proteins of the yeast family CYP52 and about 25% identity with fatty acid hydroxylases of higher eukaryotes (family CYP4A) and of Bacillus megaterium (CYP102). Southern hybridization experiments revealed the existence of further P450-related genes in C. apicola. According to the P450 nomenclature system, the cloned genes were named CYP52E1 and CYP52E2, establishing a new subfamily in yeast family CYP52. The sequences were deposited in the EMBL/GenBank Library under the Accession Numbers X76225 and X87640.     

Effect of glycine on liver cytochrome P-450 and severity of experimental food anaphylaxis

Male guinea pigs, intact and orally sensitized with chick ovalbumin (OVA), having initial bw 250-300 g, received glycine intraperitoneally or orally in a single dose of 100 or 200 mg/kg/day, during 3 days. The specific volume of cytochromes P450 and b5 in the microsomal fraction of the liver, activity of aminopyrine N-demethylase and aniline-p-hydroxylase, severity of food anaphylaxis to OVA and the animals' sensitivity to intravenous histamine LD50 were studied. The inducing effect of glycine on the cytochrome P450 system in the liver was more pronounced in the presensitized animals, that was attended by a decreased severity of food anaphylaxis and by a protective action in respect to histamine LD50. Possible mechanisms of glycine action are considered regarding its participation in metabolic processes.     

Involvement of cytochrome P450 in hydroxylation of propylbenzene by Fusarium moniliforme strain MS31

Fusarium moniliforme strain MS31 can oxidize propylbenzene to (R)-1-phenylpropanol with what may be a cytochrome P450. Hydroxylation of propylbenzene needed molecular oxygen, and NADPH as a coenzyme gave a higher yield than NADH. The hydroxylation proceeded further when FAD and FMN were added than in their absence, suggesting that the enzyme was a flavo-protein. Carbon monoxide inhibited the hydroxylation, as did other cytochrome P450 inhibitors such as SKF 525A and miconazole. These characteristics matched those of a microsomal cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system that contained NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase.     

Effects of ready to drink teas on AhR- and PXR-mediated expression of cytochromes P450 CYP1A1 and CYP3A4 in human cancer cell lines and primary human hepatocytes

A variety of xenobiotics are taken in the diet and they can interfere with regulatory pathways of drug metabolizing enzymes in humans. This can result in food-drug interactions, which is undesirable clinical situation where drug pharmacokinetics are influenced by dietary compounds. Xenobiotics-mediated food-drug interactions include the induction of drug metabolizing cytochromes P450. The expression of the most important inducible cytochromes CYP1A and CYP3A4 are regulated by xenoreceptors PXR and AhR.We examined extracts from 17 different flavoured ready to drink teas (RDTs) for their capabilities to activate PXR and AhR receptors and to induce CYP3A4 and CYP1A genes. Primary cultures of human hepatocytes and cancer cell lines HepG2 and LS174T were used as in vitro models. Gene reporter assays, RT-PCR and Western blots were performed.We identified three RDTs that induced CYP3A4 mRNA and protein, implying a potential for food-drug interactions. Several RDTs slightly elevated CYP1A1 expression or activated AhR.     

Aromatic hydroxylation is a major metabolic pathway of the mycotoxin zearalenone in vitro

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a common mycotoxin, for which only reductive metabolites have been identified so far. We now report that ZEN is extensively monohydroxylated by microsomes from human liver in vitro. Two of the major oxidative metabolites arise through aromatic hydroxylation and are catechols. Their chemical structures have been unambiguously determined by using deuterium‐labeled ZEN and by comparison with authentic reference compounds. Moreover, both catechol metabolites of ZEN were substrates of the enzyme catechol‐O‐methyl transferase. One of the monomethyl ethers represented the major metabolite when ZEN was incubated with rat liver slices, thus demonstrating that catechol formation also takes place under in vivo‐like conditions. Out of ten major human cytochrome P450 (hCYP) isoforms only hCYP1A2 was able to hydroxylate ZEN to its catechols with high activity. Catechol formation represents a novel pathway in the metabolism of ZEN and may be of toxicological relevance.     

Recombinant production of a hard-to-express membrane-bound cytochrome P450 in different yeasts—Comparison of physiology and productivity

Cytochrome P450s comprise one of the largest protein superfamilies. They occur in every kingdom of life and catalyse a variety of essential reactions. Their production is of utmost interest regarding biotransformation and structure-function elucidation. However, they have proven hard to express due to their membrane anchor, their complex co-factor requirements and their need for a redox-partner. In our study, we investigated and compared different yeast strains for the production of the plant cytochrome P450 chalcone 3-hydroxylase. To our knowledge, this is the first study evaluating different yeasts for the expression of this abundant and highly significant protein superfamily. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and three different strains of Pichia pastoris expressing chalcone 3-hydroxylase were cultivated in controlled bioreactor runs and evaluated regarding physiological parameters and expression levels of the cytochrome P450. Production differed significantly between the different strains and was found highest in the investigated P. pastoris MutS strain KM71H where 8 mg P450 per gram dry cell weight were detected. We believe that this host could be suitable for the expression of many eukaryotic, especially plant-derived, cytochrome P450s as it combines high specific product yields together with straightforward cultivation techniques for achieving high biomass concentrations. Both factors greatly facilitate subsequent establishment of purification procedures for the cytochrome P450 and make the yeast strain an ideal platform for biotransformation as well.     

FADB: a food additive molecular database for in silico screening in food toxicology

A crucial limit to in silico preliminary toxicological evaluations in the “food safety” area is the lack of a specific, efficient and available free dataset of 3D small molecules. In this direction, we present the first version of FADB (Food Additives Data Base), a suitable and freely available food additives dataset. FADB is the 3D version of the EAFUS (Everything Added to Food in the United States) list, a sum of WHO, FAO food additive databases and could be a useful starting material in preliminary stages of toxicological assessments. Molecules in FADB are represented through several chemical and 1D identifies, physical properties and 3D (SD and Mol2 file) file formats. FADB also contains important information about functional uses of chemicals as food additives. The aim of the work is to put together substances potentially relevant to food into a “computational” library for virtual screening and docking studies with interesting scenarios for toxicology.     

Anthocyanins and their metabolites are weak inhibitors of cytochrome P450 3A4

The cytochrome P450 enzyme cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) controls the metabolism of about 60% of all drugs, and its inhibition may dramatically affect drug safety. Modulation of cytochrome P450 activity has been observed by constituents of fruit extracts including several flavonoids. The present investigation addresses CYP3A4 inhibition by anthocyanins, their aglycons, proanthocyanidins, and phenolic metabolites using a chemiluminescent assay. Test compounds inhibited CYP3A4 activity in a concentration-dependent manner featuring IC(50) values from 12.2 up to 7,842 microM. In the order of decreasing effect size, anthocyanidins were followed by anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and phenolic acids. When compared to earlier data on furanocoumarins from grapefruit extract, the inhibitory activity of tested anthocyanins, and anthocyanidins was shown to be about 10,000-fold weaker, and was negligible for phenolic acids (>100 000-fold weaker). Future studies are invited to address effects of the above flavonoids on other CYP isoforms for more detailed toxicity profiles.     

Invited review: Cytochrome P450 enzyme involvement in health and inflammatory-based diseases of dairy cattle

Dairy cattle are at the greatest risk of developing diseases around the time of calving because of compromised immune responses and the occurrence of oxidative stress. Both the development of compromised immunity and oxidative stress are influenced directly or indirectly by the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and fat-soluble vitamins. The cytochrome P450 (CYP450) family of enzymes is central to the metabolism of both classes of these compounds, but to date, the importance of CYP450 in the health of dairy cattle is underappreciated. As certain CYP450 isoforms metabolize both PUFA and fat-soluble vitamins, potential interactions may occur between PUFA and fat-soluble vitamins that are largely unexplored. For example, one CYP450 that generates anti-inflammatory oxylipids from arachidonic acid additionally contributes to the activation of vitamin D. Other potential substrate interactions between PUFA and vitamins A and E may exist as well. The intersection of PUFA and fat-soluble vitamin metabolism by CYP450 suggest that this enzyme system could provide an understanding of how immune function and oxidant status interconnect, resulting in increased postpartum disease occurrence. This review will detail the known contributions of bovine CYP450 to the regulation of oxylipids with a focus on enzymes that may also be involved in the metabolism of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E that contribute to antioxidant defenses. Although the activity of specific CYP450 is generally conserved among mammals, important differences exist in cattle, such as the isoforms primarily responsible for activation of vitamin D that makes their specific study in cattle of great importance. Additionally, a CYP450-driven inflammatory positive feedback loop is proposed, which may contribute to the dysfunctional inflammatory responses commonly found during the transition period. Establishing the individual enzyme isoform contributions to oxylipid biosynthesis and the regulation of vitamins A, D, and E may reveal how the CYP450 family of enzymes can affect inflammatory responses during times of increased susceptibility to disease. Determining the potential effect of each CYP450 on disease susceptibility or pathogenesis may allow for the targeted manipulation of the CYP450 pathways to influence specific immune responses and antioxidant defenses during times of increased risk for health disorders.     

The effect of starvation on mast cell functional activity and on the content of microsomal cytochromes in the liver]

Histamine secretion and ATP levels were measured in mast cells from the abdominal and pleural cavities of Wistar rat males (250-300 g) which had been starving for 2-4 days. Food deprivation had no effect on histamine levels and secretion in exposure to substance 48/80. ATP concentration got reduced from starvation day 2. Food deprivation for 2 days led to decline in the content of cytochromes P-450, P-450B, in the ratio P-450B/P-450L, but had no effect on rat liver cytochrome B5. 4-day starvation did not entail further changes.     

CONTENTS OF CYTOCHROMES IN YEAST

The contents of cytochromes in yeast were determined quantitatively from the absorption spectra, using a solid cell paste of intact yeast. During the industrial production of baker's yeast, the contents of the cytochromes, particularly of cytochrome aa₃ at successive stages, increased gradually with increasing aeration. In semi-aerobically grown baker's yeast, the contents of cytochromes aa₃, b and c were 0·9, 2·9 and 2·9 × 10^?5 moles/litre of fresh yeast (total amount 6·7 × 10^?5 moles/litre), while in vigorously aerated commercial baker's yeast the respective values were 2·3, 4·8 and 5·2 × 10^?5 moles/litre (total amount 12·3 × 10^?5 moles/litre). In brewer's yeasts separated after the brewing process, the contents of cytochromes were markedly lower than in baker's yeast grown with limited aeration, whereas in top-fermenting yeast the total cytochrome content, aa₃ + b + c, was in some samples markedly higher, 7·1 × 10^?5 moles/litre, than in bottom-fermenting brewer's yeast, 2·4 × 10^?5 moles/litre. When brewer's bottom yeast was grown on a laboratory scale under increasing aeration, a maximum appeared in the cytochrome contents when aeration was moderate, and increased aeration inhibited the formation of cytochromes. The cytochrome contents in brewer's bottom yeast may exceed the amounts found in commercial baker's yeast. In addition to aeration, the type of metabolism influences the amounts of cytochromes in yeast.     

Thiomethylstilbenes as inhibitors of CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP1B1 activities

Resveratrol (3,5,4'-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) is a natural stilbene derivative occurring in grapes, peanuts and red wine. Its chemopreventive action has been established in studies on animal models. Recently, numerous classes of compounds with stilbene backbone have been investigated for their biological activity concerning cancer prevention; e. g. resveratrol methyl ethers appeared to be specific and potent inhibitors of cytochromes P450 (CYP) family 1 involved in the activation of procarcinogens. Since the replacement of the 4'-hydroxyl with a thiomethyl group is supposed to reduce toxicity of stilbene derivatives, the purpose of this study was the synthesis and evaluation of a series of 4-thiomethyl-trans-stilbene derivatives differing in a number and position of additional methoxy groups. Their inhibitory potency toward human recombinant CYPs: CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP1B1 have been studied and compared with the effect of resveratrol and its analogues. Among compounds tested, 2-methoxy-4'-thiomethyl-trans-stilbene and 3-methoxy-4'-thiomethyl-trans-stilbene demonstrated the most potent and selective inhibitory effect on CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 activities. The results of our study indicate that modification of stilbene derivatives with thiomethyl group may influence the selectivity and inhibitory potency of these compounds toward P450 isozymes. Thus, it should be considered in developing new chemopreventive agents based on their mechanism of action.     

Cloning and characterization of an n-alkane-inducible cytochrome P450 gene essential for n-decane assimilation by Yarrowia lipolytica

A gene encoding cytochrome P450 involved in n-alkane utilization was cloned from an n-alkane assimilating yeast, Yarrowia lipolytica CX161-1B. The RT-PCR was performed on the mRNA prepared from the cells grown on n-alkane as a template using degenerated PCR primers designed for the conserved amino acid sequences of the CYP52 family. The RT-PCR amplified fragment was then used as a probe to isolate genes coding for P450 of the CYP52 family from the genomic DNA library of the strain CX161-1B. The nucleotide sequence of one of the positive clones was determined. An open reading frame which had the same nucleotide sequence as the RT-PCR-amplified fragment was identified. It was of 523 amino acid residues, 60·2 kDa in molecular mass, and had 30–45% sequence identity with the other members of the CYP52 family of Candida species so far analysed. The expression of the P450 gene that was named as YlALK1 was induced by n-tetradecane and repressed by glycerol. A YlALK1 gene disruptant did not grow well on n-decane, but grew on longer-chain n-alkanes such as hexadecane as a sole carbon source. Introduction of YlALK1 on a plasmid to the disruptant restored the decane assimilation. These results suggest that the YlALK1 gene product is the major P450Alk to metabolize short-chain n-alkanes such as decane and dodecane in Y. lipolytica. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Candida maltosa NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase: Cloning of a full-length cDNA,Heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and function of the N-terminal region for membrane anchoring and proliferation of the endoplasmic reticulum

A full-length cDNA for NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase from Candida maltosa was cloned and sequenced. The derived amino acid sequence showed a high similarity to the reductases from other eukaryotes. Expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae under control of the GAL10 promoter resulted in an approximately 70-fold increase in NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activity in the microsomal fraction. The functional integrity of the heterologously expressed reductase as an electron transfer component for alkane hydroxylating cytochrome P450 from C. maltosa was shown in a reconstituted system containing both enzymes in a highly purified state. The signal-anchor sequence of the reductase was identified within the N-terminal region of the protein by means of constructing and expressing fusion proteins with the cytosolic form of yeast invertase. The first 33 amino acids turned out to be sufficient for stable membrane insertion, wild-type membrane orientation and retention in the endoplasmic reticulum. As shown by immunoelectron microscopy, the heterologously expressed reductase was integrated into the endoplasmic reticulum of the host organism. It triggered a strong proliferation of the membrane system. This membrane-inducing property of the reductase was transferable to the cytosolic reporter protein with the same N-terminal sequences that confer membrane insertion. The nucleotide sequence of the cDNA of NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase from C. maltosa is available from the EMBL data library under Accession Number X76226.     

Comparison of visible and near infrared reflectance spectroscopy to discriminate between pasture-fed and concentrate-fed lamb carcasses

We compared visible and near infrared spectroscopy to distinguish pasture-fed (P) from stall concentrate-fed (S) lamb carcasses. A total of 120 P and 139 S lambs were used. The reflectance spectrum of perirenal fat was measured at wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm using a portable spectrophotometer, and at wavelengths between 400 and 2500 nm using a laboratory monochromator NIRSystem. In method W_450–510, the reflectance data were used at wavelengths between 450 and 510 nm. In methods W_400–700 and W_400–2500, a multivariate analysis was performed over the full set of reflectance data, at wavelengths in the range 400–700 nm and 400–2500 nm, respectively. The proportion of correctly classified P lambs was 89.1%, 90.8% and 97.5% for W_450–510, W_400–700 and W_400–2500, W_400–2500 performing best. The proportion of correctly classified S lambs was not significantly different between methods (98.6%, 98.6% and 97.8% for W_450–510, W_400–700 and W_400–2500, respectively).     

食品添加剂苯甲酸检测方法研究进展

苯甲酸作为食品添加剂,其添加量多少将直接影响到人体健康。该文综述高效液相色谱法、毛细管电泳法、气相色谱法、紫外分光光度法及薄层层析法等检测方法基本原理及其近几年在苯甲酸检测技术方面研究进展,最后展望这些检测方法在苯甲酸检测方面发展前景。     

铁观音多酚提取物对小鼠肝Cyp450s的影响

为探究铁观音多酚提取物对小鼠肝Cyp450s的影响,采用实时荧光定量反转录聚合酶链式反应法和Western blot法评价铁观音多酚提取物对小鼠肝Cyp3a11、Cyp2d22、Cyp2c37 3种酶的m RNA和蛋白表达。结果显示,与空白对照组相比,低剂量铁观音多酚提取物(150 mg/(kg·d))能显著诱导Cyp3a11、Cyp2d22、Cyp2c37的m RNA表达(P0.05),同时显著诱导Cyp2d22蛋白的表达,但对Cyp3a11蛋白表达无明显作用,对Cyp2c37蛋白表达呈现显著抑制作用;中剂量(300 mg/(kg·d))能显著抑制Cyp3a11、Cyp2c37的m RNA和蛋白表达(P0.05),而对Cyp2d22的mRNA和蛋白表达无显著影响;高剂量(600 mg/(kg·d))对3种酶的m RNA表达无显著影响,但对3种酶的蛋白表达呈显著抑制作用(P0.05)。结果表明铁观音多酚提取物能够影响小鼠肝Cyp3a11、Cyp2d22和Cyp2c37的表达,揭示了铁观音多酚提取物与药物合用时产生的代谢性药物相互作用。