Utilization of Pork Collagen Protein in Emulsified and Whole Muscle Meat Products

ABSTRACT: Effects of pork collagen in emulsified and whole muscle products were evaluated. Eight frankfurter treatments (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, and 3.5% pork collagen) and 4 ham treatments (0%, 1%, 2%, and 3% pork collagen) were formulated. Frankfurters and hams were evaluated for cooked yields, purge, color, texture, and sensory characteristics. Incorporation of pork collagen at 1% and above significantly ( P < 0.05) increased cooked and chilled yields in frankfurters but did not have any effect in hams. Purge was significantly ( P < 0.05) reduced in both frankfurters and hams after 4 wk of storage. Sensory difference testing showed no significant difference up to 2% usage level of pork collagen in both frankfurters and hams ( P > 0.05).     

Effects of Reduced Salt (NaCI) Levels on Sensory and Instrumental Evaluation of Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured with beef-pork mixtures using commercial procedures and varying levels (2.5%, 2.0%, 1.5%, 1.0%) of two types of NaCl (granulated, flake). Parameters investigated were sensory color, texture, flavor and overall acceptability, and instrumental texture and color during storage at 8°C. Sensory scores for color were acceptable and similar among treatments with varying salt levels, except for products with 1.0% salt. As emulsion stability decreased, however, frankfurter skin color became darker. In general, a reduction in salt by more than 20% (<2.0% salt) resulted in frankfurters of softer and less firm texture. Scores for flavor and overall acceptability were lower (P<0.05) for frankfurters with 1.5% or 1.0% vs 2.5% salt and deteriorated with increasing storage for all salt treatments. Flavor deterioration with storage was more pronounced in products with reduced salt levels (1.5% and 1.0%).     

Acceptability of low-fat frankfurters as influenced by the feeding of elevated levels of monounsaturated fats to growing-finishing swine

The effects of high levels of oleic acid in the diet on the physical, chemical and sensory traits of frankfurters were examined. Frankfurters were formulated at three fat levels (10, 20 and 25%) from pork trimmings from each dietary treatment. The control frankfurters were the most springy, firm, flavorful and palatable and had the most intense flavor (P < 0·05). However, low-fat frankfurters produced from the high-oleate treatments were comparable to the control in all sensory characteristics (P > 0·05). The 10 and 25% fat frankfurters were rated highest and lowest, respectively, for juiciness, springiness, firmness, flavor, flavor intensity and overall palatability (P < 0·05). Sensory panelists detected off-flavors in the 25% fat frankfurters more frequently than in the 10% fat frankfurters (P < 0·05). 2-Thiobarbituric acid values were not affected by treatment and were acceptable after storage at 2°C for 24 weeks (P < 0·05).     

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED WITH POTATO STARCH, FINELY GROUND TOASTED BREAD AND RICE BRAN

Low-fat frankfurters (10% fat, 13% protein) were produced with 3.0% potato starch, finely ground toasted bread and rice bran or their combination. No differences (P > 0.05) were found in processing yield and purge accumulation among treatments of tested ingredients. Potato starch (3.0%) significantly increased the lightness, hardness and skin strength of low-fat frankfurters. Finely ground toasted bread had the highest scores for visual color, external redness, flavor intensity and overall acceptability and improved (P < 0.05) skin strength of frankfurters in comparison to potato starch. Low-fat frankfurters with 3.0% rice bran had the same (P>0.05) visual color scores, redness and textural properties as those produced with potato starch and toasted bread, but lower (P < 0.05) flavor intensity and overall acceptability and were judged as "just acceptable". Decreasing the rice bran from 3.0 to 1.5% and using it in combination with toasted bread (0.75%) and potato starch (0.75%) had an insignificant effect on the flavor intensity and overall acceptability of low-fat frankfurters.     

PROCESSING CHARACTERISTICS AND YIELD OF PORK FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED FROM GILTS ADMINISTERED EXOGENOUS PORCINE SOMATOTROPIN

Eighteen gilts (75 kg) were injected daily with 0, 2.5, or 5 mg of porcine somatotropin (pST) for either 30 or 31 days prior to slaughter to examine the effects of dose of pST administration to swine on processing characteristics of frankfurters manufactured from pork. Frankfurters were manufactured from New York shoulders (NAMP #404) and formulated with fat from the same carcass to a final product target of 22% fat and 10% added water. Frankfurters from pST- treated gilts had lower smokehouse yields (0.9% decrease; P <.005) and greater shear force peak height (35.4% increase; P < 0.05) compared with the controls. The increased shear force required for skin failure of frankfurters manufactured from pork from pST-treated pigs was not readily explained by other differences due to treatment (e.g., cooking stability, batter proximate composition or salt soluble protein content; all P > 0.05)     

Low-Fat, High-Moisture Frankfurters: Effects of Temperature and Water during Extended Mixing

Frankfurters containing 15% fat and 25% added water were produced using conventional practice or minced meat batters were mixed for 30 min (extended mixing, EM) at 2 or 16°C with all or 30% of the formulation water. EM had minimal effects on yield, purge, and texture. Products were darker and less yellow than non-EM frankfurters. The lower mixing temperature resulted in firmer (P < 0.05) frankfurters. However, mixing temperature did not affect other properties. Time of water addition affected most properties. Frankfurters from treatments mixed with 100% of formulation water were firmer, darker, redder, less yellow, and required more extension to fracture.     

Effects of Reduced Sodium Chloride and Added Phosphates on Physical and Sensory Properties of Turkey Frankfurters

Turkey frankfurters containing 20 and 40% salt (NaCl) reductions were manufactured and evaluated in comparison to a standard formulation containing 2.5% sodium chloride. Additionally, either 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), sodium hexametaphosphate (HMP), or sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) were incorporated into frankfurters containing similar salt reductions. Phosphates improved emulsion stability and yields, especially in formulas with 40% salt reductions. TPP increased frankfurter firmness compared to that provided by SAPP or HMP regardless of salt level, but TPP had a deleterious effect on freshness at the 2.0% salt level. SAPP was more effective than HMP in improving plumpness and enhancing salt flavor intensity. Overall, SAPP appeared to provide greater benefits than either HMP or TPP as a single polyphosphate for reduced salt turkey frankfurters.     

COMPARISON OF GROUND VERSUS MECHANICALLY DESINEWED BEEF IN FRANKFURTERS

Six formulations of frankfurters were processed from three sources of lean (USDA choice minor cuts, USDA choice flanks and USDA utility triangles) that were comminuted by two systems (grinding and mechanical desinewing). Total frankfurter yields during smoking, chilling and reheating were not affected by formulation. Mechanical desinewing was effective in removing connective tissue from choice minor cut and utility triangle beef and reducing the incidence of gelling out in frankfurters made from choice minor cuts. Desinewing improved the ease in casing peelability only for frankfurters made from choice flanks. Sensory and physical characteristics were affected more by source of lean than by method of comminution. Frankfurters prepared from choice flanks had higher tenderness ratings, finer texture scores and lighter color than frankfurters made from choice minor cuts and utility triangles.     

Characteristics of Frankfurters Prepared from Mutton and Fowl

The nutritional, chemical, physical, and sensory properties of mutton:fowl (M/F) frankfurters were compared to those of an all beef frankfurter. The beef frankfurter was higher in fat and lower in moisture (P 0.05) than the experimental product. The 1M/1F and 2M/ 1F frankfurters were higher (P 0.05) in niacin and thiamin than the beef frankfurters. The mineral content of the experimental frankfurters was consistent with that of other processed meat products. The water-holding capacity (WHC) and emulsion stability (ES) of the 2M/1F frankfurters were superior (P 0.05) to those of the 1M/1F. The beef frankfurter was redder and firmer (P 0.05) than the experimental frankfurters. The M/F frankfurters were preferred over the beef for juiciness and flavor.     

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CORN GERM AND SOY PROTEINS UTILIZATION IN COMMINUTED MEAT PRODUCTS1

Soy flour (SF), soy concentrate (SC) and corn germ protein flour (CGPF) at 3.5%, or 2% of soy isolate (SI) were incorporated in the formulations of frankfurters. There was no significant differences in proximate composition of frankfurters containing SF, SC. SI, and CGPF. Frankfurters formulated with high plant protein flour had lower cholesterol, and higher protein content than the all-meat control frankfurters. Control frankfurters had lower water holding capacity and higher cooking losses than those containing plant proteins. No significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in textural and color characteristics. Atypical aroma and flavor profiles increased in frankfurters with SF nd CGPF extension.     

Influence of protein isolate from lupin seeds (Lupinus albus ssp. Graecus) on processing and quality characteristics of frankfurters

Lupin protein isolate (92% protein) from seeds of Lupinus albus ssp. Graecus (LSPI) was used as powder ingredient for the manufacture of frankfurters at levels 0, 1, 2 and 3% of the formulation weight. Additional 1% water was added during batter formulation to each 1% protein used. LSPI increased (P < 0.05) the pH and viscosity of batter and reduced the jelly separation. Increasing the LSPI level resulted in higher (P < 0.05) processing yield and lower (P < 0.05) purge accumulation, redness and visual colour scores and hardness of frankfurters. Significant differences in overall acceptability were not found among the control and frankfurters with 1% and 2% LSPI. Frankfurters with 3% LSPI were judged as unacceptable. Incorporation of LSPI at 1% level either in hydrated form or as stabilizer in pre-emulsified fat improved the processing characteristics and overall acceptability of frankfurters made with LSPI as powder ingredient and did not affect the color and texture.     

Potato Starch and Flour in Frankfurters: Effect on Chemical and Sensory Properties, and Total Plate Counts

Potato starch and flour were examined as possible constituents in frankfurter formulations. Frankfurters manufactured with 3% potato starch or 1.5% potato starch plus 1.5% potato flour in place of 3% wheat flour normally used as a binder, and stored at 4–5°C for 28 days did not differ significantly in percent shrink, water, protein, fat, ash or salt. Residual nitrite levels decreased during the storage period. Total plate counts reflect residual nitrite levels since the frankfurters (3% starch) with the lowest nitrite concentration also had the greatest number of bacteria (6.4 × 10⁶/g) on day 28. Frankfurters formulated with 1.5% potato starch plus 1.5% potato flour were rated more tender and more juicy than those made with 3% potato starch (P≤0.05 and P≤0.01) and 3% wheat flour (P≤0.01 and P≤0.01), respectively. Fresh potato starch and wheat flour franks did not differ from each other in either characteristic but after one week's storage the potato starch samples were rated more tender (P≤0.05) and more juicy (P≤0.01). Less force was required to shear the frankfurters formulated with 3% potato starch.     

Emulsion Stability and Sensory Quality of Beef Frankfurters Produced at Different Fat or Peanut Oil Levels

Frankfurters were produced at 12, 20 and 29% fat levels using beef fat or 60% substitution with peanut oil. Less emulsion stability, lower smokehouse yield and lower sensory juiciness scores were found as final fat content of beef frankfurters was lowered to 12%. Firmness, darkening of external color, and flavor intensity were enhanced in the low fat product. Frankfurters with 60% fat as peanut oil exhibited comparable emulsion stability and sensory quality parameters with no rancid flavor development over a period of 6 weeks at 4°C. They were as acceptable to sensory panels as the 29% beef fat frankfurters. Substitution of 60% of the beef fat with peanut oil resulted in a product with significantly (P < 0.05) less cholesterol content.     

Calcium Fortified, Reduced Fat Beef Emulsion Product

Characteristics were investigated on a 15%/25%, fat/added water beef frankfurter supplemented with calcium (calcium carbonate or calcium-citrate-malate complex, CCM) to meet 25, 50, 75 or 100% of adult U.S. RDA in one 45g frankfurter. Controls contained 15%/25% or 30%/10% fat/added water. Compared to controls, calcium addition did not reduce yield although batters containing CCM had lower viscosity (P<0.05). During storage, pH of calcium added frankfurters increased about 0.35 units. Frankfurters formulated with 100% levels for calcium were least acceptable to sensory panelists. Frankfurters were softer and had less springiness and chewiness (P<0.05) when supplemented with 100% levels for calcium.     

Characteristics of Low-Salt Frankfurters Produced with Enzyme-Modified Mechanically Deboned Fowl

Objective and sensory methods were used to compare low-salt frankfurters containing enzyme-modified mechanically deboned fowl (MDF) with normal-salt (2%) and low-salt (0.5%) MDF frankfurter controls, a low-salt MDF pH control and a commercial chicken frankfurter. MDF was modified with Milezyme AFP 2000. There was no significant difference (P < 0.05) in reheated yield between the enzyme-modified treatment, the normal-salt control, and the commercial frankfurter. Enzymatic modification resulted in improved texture and had no adverse effect on cured meat color or flavor when compared to other low-salt treatments. Microbial numbers increased faster on the enzyme-modified low-salt frankfurter than on the normal-salt control.     

Properties of Low-Fat Frankfurters Containing Monounsaturated and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Oils

Properties of low-fat (<18%) frankfurters containing high-oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSO) and fish oil were studied. Replacement of animal fats by the oils had little effect on emulsion stability. Frankfurters with 5% fish oil had very low sensory scores due to undesirable fish flavor. Incorporation of maximum amounts of HOSO into low-fat beef/pork and all-beef frankfurters increased oleic acid by 34% and 62%, respectively, and the monounsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio by 178% and 468%, respectively, compared to a regular (30% fat) product containing only animal fats. Sensory evaluation and instrumental texture profile analysis showed that the reduction in total fat caused texture problems, especially increased firmness and springiness and decreased juiciness.     

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF MEAT BATTERS AND FRANKFURTERS CONTAINING WHEAT GERM PROTEIN FLOUR1

Frankfurters were extended with wheat germ protein flour (WGPF) at 3.5, 5.0. and 7.0%. Water added during formulation was increased by 2% for every 1% of WGPF added. Batters containing WGPF had higher pH and adhesiveness values. Viscosities of the batters were not affected by addition of WGPF. Batters containing WGPF had lower cooking losses, and lower percent water and fat separated. Positive effects, such as lower cooking losses, higher processing yields and lower percent fat, were not consistent at levels of WGPF beyond 3.5%, probably because of higher levels of added water. Total yields of the samples containing WGPF were higher than those of control samples. No differences were observed in protein and amino acid contents of samples. Lower fat content was found in samples extended with 7.0% WGPF. Frankfurters containing WGPF had lower shear force and firmness values. Differences in color of frankfurters were also observed.     

Sensory Attributes and Instron Measurements of Reduced-Nitrite Poultry Frankfurters With Sorbic Acid or Potassium Sorbate

Poultry frankfurters (0 and 40 ppm nitrite) with sorbic acid or potassium sorbate were studied. Flavor characteristics were influenced by nitrite but not by ascorbic acid or potassium sorbate. Frankfurters with sorbic acid were softer and those with potassium sorbate were firmer than those without. Nitrite alone increased firmness. Sorbic acid appeared to counteract that increased firmness and potassium sorbate enhanced the increase in firmness when those compounds were used in combination with nitrite in the poultry frankfurters. Simulated-teeth attachments for the Inston gave results similar to sensory firmness scores. Frankfurters with sorbic acid added had lower pH than frankfurters from other treatments.     

GENERAL MICROBIAL PROFILE OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS FORMULATED WITH SODIUM LACTATE AND A TEXTURE MODIFIER1

Frankfurters formulated with starch-isolated soy protein (starch-ISP) alone, or with starch-ISP and sodium lactate were compared with controls for purge and microbial quality during storage. No significant difference was detected in purge or in initial moisture content between frankfurters containing the additives. However, there was a significant difference between these samples and controls, with the former retaining more water. Samples containing lactate had significantly lower numbers of lactic acid bacteria than samples containing starch-ISP or controls. All samples showed an increase during storage followed by a decrease, but frankfurters containing lactate decreased 7 days earlier. There was significant inhibition of psychrotrophs in samples containing the additives, with controls showing 10⁴ cells/g within 14 days compared with no counts in the treated samples. Frankfurters containing starch-ISP eventually showed growth after 42 days, while samples containing lactate showed no counts at any time during storage.