Dynamics of a stressful encounter: Cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes.

Investigated the functional relations among cognitive appraisal and coping processes and their short-term outcomes within stressful encounters. The authors used an intraindividual analysis of the interrelations among primary appraisal (what was at stake in the encounter), secondary appraisal (coping options), 8 forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and encounter outcomes in a sample of 85 married couples (females aged 35–45 yrs and males aged 26–54 yrs). Findings show that coping was strongly related to cognitive appraisal; the forms of coping that were used varied depending on what was at stake and the options for coping. Coping was also differentially related to satisfactory and unsatisfactory encounter outcomes. Findings clarify the functional relations among appraisal and coping variables and the outcomes of stressful encounters. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of neuroticism in daily stress and coping.

The authors examined the influence of neuroticism (N) on the occurrence of different types of daily events, primary and secondary appraisals of those events, use of specific coping strategies, and end-of-day negative mood. College students completed questionnaires at the end of every day for 14 consecutive days. When reporting their most stressful event of each day, high-N individuals, compared with low-N individuals, reported more interpersonal stressors and had more negative primary and secondary appraisals and reacted with more distress in response to increasingly negative primary and secondary appraisals. Compared with low-N individuals, high-N individuals used less-adaptive coping strategies (e.g., hostile reaction) and reacted with more distress in response to some types of coping strategies. The appraisal findings, in particular, help to explain the chronic negative affectivity associated with neuroticism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does coping help? A reexamination of the relation between coping and mental health.

In a longitudinal community survey of 291 adults, we explored the relation between coping strategies and psychological symptoms. Respondents completed the revised Ways of Coping Scale (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985) for a self-named stressful episode. Factor analysis produced eight coping factors: three problem focused, four emotion focused, and one (support mobilization) that contained elements of both. Multiple regression analyses indicated bidirectionality in the relation between coping and psychological symptoms. Those in poorer mental health and under greater stress used less adaptive coping strategies, such as escapism, but coping efforts still affected mental health independent of prior symptom levels and degree of stress. We compared main versus interactive effects models of stress buffering. Main effects were confined primarily to the emotion-focused coping scales and showed little or negative impacts of coping on mental health; interactive effects, though small, were found with the problem-focused scales. The direction of the relation between problem-focused scales and symptoms may depend in part on perceived efficacy, or how the respondent thought he or she handled the problem. Implications for the measurement of adaptive coping mechanisms and their contextual appropriateness are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in alcoholic patients' coping responses predict 12-month treatment outcomes.

Patient subtypes (Types A and B alcoholism), determinants, and outcomes associated with changes in coping responses of 133 alcoholic patients in the year following admission to treatment were examined. In general, patients' use of avoidance coping declined and use of approach coping increased. Type B patients used more avoidance coping than did Type A patients, but the subtypes did not differ in rate of change in coping. As a determinant of coping, cognitive appraisal of threat showed a trend toward predicting avoidance coping at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Decreased cognitive avoidance coping (e.g., daydreaming) predicted fewer alcohol, psychological, and interpersonal problems. Increased behavioral approach coping (e.g., taking action) predicted lower severity of alcohol problems. Further study of changes in the cognitive aspects of coping (i.e., appraisals and cognitive avoidance coping) is needed to determine mechanisms underlying cognitive processes associated with treatment outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The association between threat appraisals and psychological adjustment in partners of people with spinal cord injuries.

Objective: To explore the psychological factors associated with adjustment in partners of people with spinal cord injuries (SCIs). Participants and Design: Forty partners of people with SCIs. The study had a cross-sectional design. Main Outcome Measures: Beck Depression Inventory, the State Trait Anxiety Inventory Form Y-1, Social Provisions Scale, COPE, and an appraisal scale. Results: Approximately one third of partners reported levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms above the clinical cut-off points indicating elevated levels of emotional distress. Factors hypothesized to account for levels of emotional distress on the basis of the cognitive-appraisal model of stress and coping were found to be explanative. In particular, high threat appraisal, higher use of avoidance (emotion-focused) coping, and lack of approach (problem-focused) coping were found to predict higher levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Partners of people with SCIs are at risk of emotional distress. Factors that might help identify at-risk partners are identified and psychological interventions that might help partners are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping strategies, drinking motives, and stressful life events among middle adolescents: Associations with emotional and behavioral problems and with academic functioning.

A sample of 733 middle adolescents was used to study interrelations among coping strategies, drinking motives, stressful life events (major, daily positive, and daily negative), emotional and behavioral problems, and academic functioning. A main-effects (vs. stress-buffering) model was supported. Some predictors (e.g., task-oriented coping, major stressful events) were general in their predictive relations to the outcome variables, whereas others were highly specific (e.g., emotion-focused coping predicting depressed affect). Overall, the predictors accounted for 22-53% of the variance in regression equations. Positive daily events predicted higher levels of alcohol use, alcohol problems, and delinquent activity, as well as higher academic performance and lower levels of depressed affect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress processes and depressive symptomatology.

75 community-residing married White couples (age ranges for husbands and wives were 26–54 yrs and 35–45 yrs, respectively) were interviewed once a month for 5 mo about the most stressful encounter they had experienced the previous week. Depressive symptomatology was assessed monthly with the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. Ss high and low in depressive symptoms were compared on appraisal, coping, emotion, and encounter outcome. Compared with Ss low in depressive symptoms, those high in symptoms felt they had more at stake in stressful encounters; used more confrontative coping, self-control, and escape-avoidance, and accepted more responsibility; and responded with more disgust/anger and worry/fear. The overall pattern suggested that high-depressive Ss were more vulnerable and hostile than those who were low. However, high-depressive Ss were not negative in all facets of their appraisal and coping processes. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adjustment to multiple sclerosis: Application of a stress and coping model.

This study examined the use of a stress and coping model of adjustment to multiple sclerosis (MS). A total of 122 MS patients were interviewed and completed self-administered scales at Time 1 and 12 months later, Time 2 (n?=?96). Predictors included stressful life events, illness (duration, severity, and disability), social support, appraisal (threat and control/challenge), and coping (problem focused and emotion [wishful thinking, self-blame, and avoidance] focused). Adjustment outcomes were Time 2 depression, global distress, social adjustment, and subjective health status. Results from hierarchical regression analyses indicated that after controlling for the effects of Time-1 adjustment, better Time-2 adjustment was related to less disability, greater reliance on problem-focused coping, and less reliance on emotion-focused coping. There was limited support for the stress buffering effects of coping and social support. Findings offer some support for the use of a stress and coping model of adaptation to MS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress processes and the misuse of drugs in older adults.

There is increasing concern about the misuse of drugs among the elderly. We assessed misuse, including drug usage, drug interactions across pharmacologic classes, and multiple drugs in the same pharmacologic class, in a community sample of sixty-five 74-year-olds, and evaluated its relation to stress and coping processes and psychological and somatic health. Assessments were made repeatedly over a 6-month period. Results indicated that misuse was multidimensional and widespread. Misusers did not differ from nonmisusers on antecedent psychosocial variables, nor did they report more hassles or cope differently than nonmisusers. However, misusers and nonmisusers differed on their subjective experience of stressful encounters; misusers experienced their hassles as more intense, and they experienced more threat emotions and more dissatisfaction with their coping than did nonmisusers. Misuse was also associated with long-term psychological satisfaction, psychological symptoms, and somatic health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping style, perceived uncertainty in illness, and distress in individuals with Parkinson's disease and their caregivers.

Examined the relationship of coping style and illness uncertainty to psychological distress in individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD) and their primary caregivers. Design: Correlational methods, within-group theory-driven hierarchical regression analyses, and transactional analyses. Ss were 44 dyads composed of individuals with PD and their caregivers. Main Outcome Measures: Hoehn and Yahr Clinical Disability Rating Scale, Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale, Symptom Distress Checklist-90—Revised, Mischel Uncertainty in Illness Scale-Community Form, and Revised Ways of Coping Checklist. Results: Emotion-focused coping was associated with higher levels of distress for persons with PD, whereas both emotion-focused coping and perceived uncertainty were associated with distress for the caregivers. Transactional analyses between patients and caregivers indicated that higher levels of patient problem-focused coping and perceived uncertainty in illness were associated with increased problems in caregiver distress. Adjustment to PD is influenced by several patient and caregiver variables. The results warrant consideration of a variety of clinical interventions involving patient and caregiver education about the disease and methods for managing the associated symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adjustment to the stress of simulated captivity: Effects of emotion-focused versus problem-focused preparation on hostages differing in locus of control.

Instructed 57 Ss about to be exposed to a simulated abduction and 4 days of captivity in either problem- or emotion-focused coping techniques, or gave them a control orientation presentation. Retrospective self-report data obtained on the Ways of Coping Checklist indicated that Ss tended to use coping processes consistent with the type of prestress preparation they had received. Dramatic fluctuations in State Anxiety scores over the course of captivity indicated that the simulation was perceived to be highly stressful. Ss given emotion-focused preparation reported the lowest anxiety and emotional distress levels and were rated as exhibiting the lowest levels of behavioral disturbance during captivity. Externals engaged in more emotion-focused coping than internals, but externals given problem-focused preparation responded the most poorly of all subgroups on all response measures. Overall, locus of control differences were of secondary impact in influencing anxiety and adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-Related Differences Among Adults Coping With Pain: Evaluation of a Developmental Life-Context Model.

The pain and coping literature is limited because of its almost exclusive focus on young adults. Our goal was to develop and evaluate a theoretically sound model of age-related differences in coping. Age-related increases in emotion-focused and avoidance-oriented coping and decreases in problem-focused coping were expected to arise from age-related differences in life-context (e.g., health status, stress levels) and in the pain experience. Questionnaire data were collected from 280 older and younger adults with pain. Increasing age was associated with lower pain severity/interference and greater perceived control over pain. Life-context partially mediated this relationship. As hypothesized, there were age-related declines in problem-focused coping. Contrary to expectations, however, older adults also used fewer emotion-focused coping strategies. The implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental investigation of consistency in female undergraduates' reports of coping efforts for the same versus different stressful situations.

For each of 3 event categories (harm/loss, threat, challenge), with a 6-week test-retest time interval, female undergraduates were randomly assigned to report on coping efforts (problem- vs. emotion-focused coping) for the same stressful event or a different stressful event across the 2 sessions. For problem-focused coping and each category of stressor, test-retest correlations were strongest when subjects reported on coping efforts for the same situation but were still of moderate size and significant for reports of coping with different stressful situations. This difference between conditions was found only for the challenge stressor for emotion-focused coping. These findings imply that stressor context, type of coping, and response tendencies across different stressors relate to the reliability of self-reported coping efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, cognitive appraisal, and coping in stressful episodes.

Investigated locus of control and coping processes in relation to specific stressful episodes reported by 171 female student nurses. Scores of each of 3 measures (General Coping, Direct Coping, and Suppression) that were derived from the Ways of Coping Questionnaire were analyzed to examine the role of appraisal (in terms of the extent to which the situation was perceived as amenable to control) and the perceived importance of the episode as mediators of the relation between locus of control and coping. Ss were also administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, the Defensiveness scale of the Adjective Check List, and the Lie scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Results show significant interactions between locus of control and appraisal for each of the measures. Further examination of the interactions showed that the patterns of coping reported by internals were potentially more adaptive in relation to types of appraisal than those of externals. The perceived importance of the episode was significantly related, negatively, to suppression, but the interaction with locus of control was not significant. (59 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contrast-enhanced MR angiography

These studies investigated appraisal and coping strategies of tension-type headache sufferers and headache-free controls. In study 1, 60 women engaged in an interpersonal stressor. They completed measures that assessed subjective stress and coping strategies. Headache sufferers reported greater levels of stress at baseline than did controls but were not more reactive to a stressful interpersonal situation. All participants reported greater use of disengagement coping during the interpersonal interaction, while the amount of engagement coping strategies did not differ. Participants (30 women) in Study 2 engaged in progressive muscle relaxation. Headache participants again reported higher levels of subjective stress at baseline, this difference was nearly gone following relaxation. Together, the results suggest that individuals with tension-type headache report higher levels of subjective stress than headache-free controls when they make baseline ratings of stress and that this elevation cannot be attributed to the anticipation of a future stressful event.     

Underlying mechanisms in the relationship between Africentric worldview and depressive symptoms.

This study examines underlying mechanisms in the relationship between an Africentric worldview and depressive symptoms. Participants were 112 African American young adults. An Africentric worldview buffered the association between perceived stress and depressive symptoms. The relationship between an Africentric worldview and depressive symptoms was mediated by perceived stress and emotion-focused coping. These findings highlight the protective function of an Africentric worldview in the context of African Americans’ stress experiences and psychological health and offer promise for enhancing African American mental health service delivery and treatment interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal control and stress and coping processes: A theoretical analysis.

Analyzes the role of personal stress and coping processes from the perspective of a cognitively oriented theory developed by R. S. Lazarus and colleagues, beginning in 1951. Believing that an event is controllable does not always lead to a reduction in stress or to a positive outcome, and believing that an event is uncontrollable does not always lead to an increase in stress or to a negative outcome. The present author shows how 2 forms of control, generalized beliefs about control and situational appraisals of control, fit into the overall model of Lazarus and colleagues. Situational appraisals of control are explored, especially as they relate to health matters. The theoretical formulation of stress and coping is drawn on to examine 3 important issues: (a) how believing one has control in a stressful transaction can heighten threat, (b) the relationship between control and coping, and (c) pathways through which control can affect the adaptational outcomes of stressful encounters. (88 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with stressful events in older children and young adolescents.

Both the capacity to generate alternative solutions to cope with stressful events and the strategies actually used to cope with interpersonal and academic stressors were examined in a sample of junior high school age youngsters. Subjects were moderately consistent in the generation and use of problem- and emotion-focused coping with the two types of events, and they adjusted the number of problem-focused alternative solutions they generated to match their appraisals of the controllability of the cause of interpersonal stressors. The number of alternative solutions generated and strategies used for interpersonal stressors was related to both self-reports and maternal reports of internalizing and externalizing emotional/behavioral problems. Specifically, the problem-focused alternatives generated and strategies used were negatively related to emotional/behavioral problems, whereas the emotion-focused alternatives generated and strategies used were positively related to emotional/behavioral problems. Coping with academic stress was not related to emotional/behavioral problems. Self-reported emotional/behavioral problems varied as a function of the match between perceived control and the generation of problem-focused alternatives for coping with social stressors but did not vary as a function of the match between perceived control and other coping strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Symptoms, hassles, social supports, and life events: Problem of confounded measures.

Recent stressful life events are related to a wide variety of psychological and physical disorders, but the relations have tended to be minimal. This has led investigators to introduce such factors as "hassles" and "social supports" in expanded investigations of life-stressed processes. As with life events scales, however, questions have been raised about whether the conceptual and operational distinctions have been clear enough to permit clear investigation of interrelations among these factors and adverse health changes. The present study examined judgments by 371 clinical psychologists of the extent to which items in leading stress instruments are likely to be symptoms of psychological disorder. Results indicate that each of the stress measures was confounded with measures of psychological distress, the Hassles Scale and the Instrumental-Expressive Support Scale more so than the Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Types of life events and social supports are discussed in terms of their relative dependence on personality and psychopathology. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)