The claiming effect: Why players are more generous in social dilemmas than in ultimatum games.

The term procedural frames is introduced and defined as different representations of structurally equivalent allocation processes. Study 1 compared 2 well-known games, sequential social dilemmas and ultimatum bargaining, that share the same structure: Player 1 creates an allocation of a resource and Player 2 decides whether to allow it or deny it. Study 1 found that Player 1 made more favorable allocations and Player 2 accepted more unfavorable allocations in a social dilemma frame than in an equivalent ultimatum bargaining frame. Study 2 revealed the critical determinant was whether Player 2 had to respond to an allocation by accepting or rejecting it (as in the ultimatum game) or by making a claim (as in the social dilemma). Two additional studies explored how these actions are perceived. The inconsistency of behavior across procedural frames raises methodological concerns but illuminates construal processes that guide allocation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and social interactional characteristics of ego identity statuses in college males.

The development of ego identity is proposed to be a condition of cognitive factors expressed in, and reciprocally modified by, different styles of social interaction. Among 99 young males (mean age 22 yrs 1 mo), identity statuses were determined by interview, cognitive complexity was assessed using the Paragraph Completion Test, and social interactional styles were determined via R. F. Bales's (1951) interaction process analysis of small group discussions of moral dilemma. Results show that higher levels of integrative complexity were associated with higher identity statuses. Characteristic social interactional patterns of high-identity status Ss (achievements and moratoriums) were cooperation and facilitation. Some foreclosure Ss showed antagonistic response patterns, whereas others adopted an acquiescent stance. Both styles were functionally equivalent in terms of serving to defend strongly held belief systems against threats of disconfirmation. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of group identity on resource use in a simulated commons dilemma.

Used 172 undergraduates in 3 experiments to assess the effects of making salient either a superordinate (collective) or subordinate (differentiating) group identity in heterogeneous groups. In Exp I, 22 male and 36 female Ss were assigned to either a superordinate-group identity (small community resident behavior vs other areas) or a subordinate-group identity (behavior of young people vs elderly people) condition and were asked to perform a computer task individually; Ss were led to believe they were interacting with 5 other persons (2 real and 3 bogus Ss) in their group in accumulating as many points as possible while making the resource last as long as possible. Bogus feedback about group behavior was given. In Exp II, 29 male and 19 female Ss were told that the bogus Ss were economics majors and were asked to perform as in Exp I. In Exp III, the level of social-group identity for 40 male and 26 female Ss was manipulated by varying the common fate of the group members. Results of all 3 experiments show support for the hypothesis that individual restraint would be most likely when a superordinate group identity was made salient and under conditions in which feedback indicated that the common resource was being depleted. A sex-response difference found in Exp I was not sustained in subsequent experiments. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inequities in access to and use of shared resources in social dilemmas.

Investigated the effects of inequities in access to and use of shared resources on harvest decisions and preferences for structural change in resource dilemmas. 70 undergraduates, in groups of approximately 6, harvested resource units from a common resource pool over 10 trials. Following the harvest trials, Ss were asked to vote on how to conduct the session. The variables were (a) access to the resource pool, (b) perceived resource use, and (c) perceived inequity in other group members' harvests. It was hypothesized that high-variance Ss, when placed in a situation where harvest inequities could be attributed to access differences, would demonstrate a stronger preference for equality-restoring decision structures than would low-variance Ss. Results offer little support for this prediction; the variance manipulation had the predicted effect only among high-access Ss in the overuse condition. The access and use variables had independent effects on preferences for structural change. Harvest decisions were mediated by the 3 design variables in the manner predicted by a 3-factor model that assumes that harvest size will be governed by self-interest, a desire to use the common resource responsibly, and conformity to implicit group norms. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disruptive effects of disconfirmed expectancies about crowding.

Utilized a 2 (high vs low room density)?×?2 (forewarning of a crowded room vs no forewarning)?×?2 (simple vs complex task) design to examine the effects of anticipation of crowding on task performance of 80 undergraduates. More tasks were attempted and efficiency was higher when expectancies about the crowd were confirmed. Ss not told to anticipate a crowd who actually worked under high density and Ss warned about a crowd that did not materialize performed most poorly. These differences were largest for the complex task. The results of A. Baum and C. I. Greenberg (see PA, Vol 56:2328) were replicated with the performance data. Perceptions of the experimental room also differed as a function of anticipation, but failure to obtain a Crowding?×?Anticipation interaction did not support their hypothesis that anticipating a crowd induces perceptions identical to those obtained under actual crowding. Results are discussed in terms of disconfirmed expectancies being disruptive of performance, particularly complex task performance. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual and structural solutions to resource dilemmas in two cultures.

Administered a resource management task to 86 US and 97 Dutch undergraduates. Ss were divided into groups of 6 and instructed to harvest points from a regenerating resource pool. Their objective was to maximize individual harvests while maintaining the resource pool. The factorial design crossed 3 levels of resource use (overuse, underuse, and optimal use) with 2 levels of variance of others' purported harvests (low and high). Both variables were manipulated through false feedback to Ss regarding the pool size and the other Ss' harvests. The primary dependent measures were Ss' individual harvests and whether Ss voted for or against elimination of free access to the resource in favor of electing a leader who would make harvest decisions for the group. Results indicate that harvest size increased over time only in the under- and optimal-use conditions. As predicted, overuse Ss voted to give up free access to the resource and to elect a leader more frequently than Ss in the other conditions. Differences between American and Dutch Ss were found only for the variance manipulation. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-awareness, psychological perspective, and self-reinforcement in relation to personal and social standards.

Assessed whether Ss would be more likely to judge their own behavior from a social perspective when they were self-aware than when they were not self-aware. 48 undergraduates reinforced themselves after receiving feedback about a performance task that indicated they had surpassed their own standard, a social standard, both standards, or neither standard. Ss did not alter their reinforcement as a function of the self-awareness manipulation when they surpassed both standards or neither standard. However, when Ss learned that they had surpassed their own standard but not the social standard, they rewarded themselves significantly more (p?p?p?p?p?     

Sex role identity, peer evaluation of competition, and the responses of women and men in a competitive situation.

A 2 (male vs female)?×?2 (peer approval vs disapproval of competition)?×?4 (sex-role identity: masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated) design was used with 78 female and 67 male students who were randomly assigned to approval/disapproval conditions. Sex-role identity was measured using the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. Results reveal effects of sex-role identity and interactions of sex and peer evaluation of competition on performance and related variables. Masculine and androgynous groups had higher expectancies for performance than feminine groups, better objective performance, and greater perceived success than feminine or undifferentiated Ss of either sex. Men and women in the masculine and androgynous groups did not differ from each other in performance, affect, or cognitions. The interactions of sex and peer evaluation of competition revealed that women responded more positively on all measures to approval than disapproval, whereas men's responses were largely unaffected. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student teams and comparison among equals: Effects on academic performance and student attitudes.

Investigated the independent effects of level of reward (recognition based on the performance of a 4- to 5-member cooperative learning team vs recognition based on individual performance) and comparison of student quiz scores (comparison with ability-homogeneous groups vs comparison with entire class) on student achievement and attitudes. Ss were 205 7th graders in 8 intact English classes. The experiment used a 2?×?2 (Reward Level?×?Comparison Group) factorial design, in which Ss studied grammar and punctuation for 10 wks. Results indicate reward level effects in favor of team reward and comparison group effects in favor of the comparison with equals on percentage of time on task, positive interpersonal perceptions, and other variables. No academic achievement effects were found for either factor. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the self-serving function of social anxiety: Shyness as a self-handicapping strategy.

Tested the hypothesis that socially anxious or shy individuals use their anxiety symptoms as a strategy to control attributions made about their performances in social-evaluative settings (i.e., self-handicapping strategies). 70 female and 72 male undergraduates, classified as low and high socially anxious on the basis of the Social Anxiety and Distress Scale, were given role-play tasks in a 3?×?2?×?2 design. It was predicted that trait-socially anxious or shy Ss would report more symptoms of social anxiety in an evaluative setting in which anxiety or shyness could serve as an excuse for poor performance than would Ss in (a) an evaluative setting in which shyness was precluded as an excuse or (b) a nonevaluative setting. It was also predicted that this self-protective pattern of symptom reporting would not occur for Ss who were not trait-socially anxious because these Ss would not commonly use such symptoms as a self-handicapping strategy. Results support these predictions for males but not for females. Sex differences in the strategic use of shyness are discussed in relation to other research on sex differences in the etiology and correlates of social anxiety. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual adaptations and structural change as solutions to social dilemmas.

80 undergraduates, in groups of 6, took "harvests" from a regenerating resource pool so as to maximize their harvests while maintaining the pool. False feedback was provided regarding the other Ss' harvest sizes. One-third of the Ss thought that the others were overusing the resource, one-third thought that the others were underusing it, and the remaining third were led to believe that the others were using the resource optimally. This "use" variable was crossed with a manipulation of the purported homogeneity of the others' behavior: Half the Ss thought that the others took relatively similar harvests (low variance), whereas the other half thought the others' harvests differed greatly (high variance). Results indicate that harvest size increased over time, especially in the underuse, high-variance condition. Ss in the overuse condition who expected that other group members would reciprocate self-restraint (high-trust Ss) decreased their harvest in comparison to low-trust Ss in this condition. As expected, more Ss in the overuse condition voted to give up free access to the resource in favor of a leader than did Ss in the other conditions. Data are also presented regarding the Ss' behavior as the elected leader. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of environmental support on implicit and explicit memory in younger and older adults.

Addressed (1) whether there are age differences on an implicit word-stem-completion task and (2) whether age differences on both implicit and explicit memory would decrease with increased environmental support. A total of 287 Ss were presented with words in an incidental learning task with structural or semantic processing. Following 2 filler tasks, Ss received an implicit or an explicit word-stem-completion task. The number of letters in the stem varied from 2 to 4. Results yielded an Age?×?Memory Task dissociation such that there were large age differences on the explicit task and no age difference on the implicit task, regardless of whether Ss aware of the memory test were included or excluded. There was no evidence that environmental support improved older adults' performance more than that of younger adults on either memory task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pervasive influence of social schemata.

Ss placed human figures cut from felt on a field under free response instructions and then reconstructed displays of the figures in a judgment task where the figures were presented with a fixed separation and replaced by the Ss. Next the Ss attempted to replace human statuettes while blindfolded. Finally, a word association test was administered. Those Ss who kept man and woman figures together in free placements made the largest errors of replacing man-woman pairs of figures closer together than they replaced other pairs in both the visual and nonvisual reconstructions. These Ss were significantly more likely to give "man" and "woman" as reciprocal verbal associations. The same social schema was aroused by the specific social content whether the stimuli were visual, nonvisual, or verbal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of alcohol on social anxiety in women: Cognitive versus physiological processes.

Randomly assigned 32 female social drinkers (18–25 yr old undergraduates) to 4 conditions in a 2?×?2 factorial design that controlled for drink content and expectations. Ss were administered either an alcoholic or a nonalcoholic beverage and were led to believe that their drinks contained or did not contain alcohol. After finishing their drinks Ss participated in a study of social anxiety in which they were requested to interact with a male confederate of the experimenter. Multiple measures, including heart rate, skin conductance, and overt behavioral and self-report responses, were recorded. Ss who expected alcohol showed significant elevations in physiological arousal and were rated as more anxious on observational measures of social behavior. Self-report measures failed to yield any differences among groups. Implications for the tension reduction theory of alcohol use and the importance of multiple response measures are discussed. (1? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of personal involvement: Thought-provoking implications for social loafing.

In previous research, the 2nd author and colleagues (see record 1980-30335-001) observed that individuals working together put out less effort than when they work alone; this phenomenon was termed social loafing (SL). Subsequent research by these authors (see record 1981-32831-001) suggested that SL arises, at least in part, because when participants work with others on tasks their individual outputs are lost in the crowd, and, thus, they can receive neither credit nor blame for their performance. The possibility that personal involvement in a task could moderate the SL effect was tested in the present experiment, which used a 2 (high/low involvement)?×?2 (high/low identifiability) factorial design across 3 replications with 224 undergraduates. The task involved thoughts generated in response to a counterattitudinal proposal. Replicating previous SL research, present results show that under conditions of low involvement, Ss whose outputs were identifiable worked harder than those whose outputs were pooled. However, when the task was personally involving, the SL effect was eliminated: Ss whose outputs were pooled worked as hard as those whose individual outputs could be identified. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Explaining performance variability: Contributions of goal setting, task characteristics, and evaluative contexts.

263 undergraduates participated in a factorial design consisting of 4 goal conditions (no goal, do your best, easy goal, and difficult goal)?×?3 evaluative contexts (control, peer evaluation, and compliance)?×?2 task characteristics (low and high variety)?×?2 (order of task presentation); all Ss worked on 2 tasks (manual and cognitive). Univariate MANOVAs revealed that performance on the cognitive task was significantly affected by type of goal, task variety, and evaluative context. Performance on the manual task was affected by task variety and evaluative context but not by type of goal. For both tasks, satisfaction was adversely affected by the presence of goals but was unaffected by evaluative contexts. For the cognitive task only, satisfaction was significantly higher in the low-variety condition. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affecting the salience of the social responsibility norm: effects of past help on the response to dependency relationships.

A series of experiments by the authors assumes that many people in our society are motivated to aid others who are dependent upon them because such help is prescribed by a "social responsibility norm." The present study also assumes that prior help can increase the salience of this norm. In a 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design using 80 Ss (college women), ? of the Ss were individually helped by a peer (E's confederate) on a preliminary task, while the others were not aided. After this, the Ss worked on another task under the supposed supervision of yet another peer, with ? of the Ss being told the supervisor was highly dependent upon their work and the others told she was less dependent upon them. The 1st peer would supposedly learn of their work in ? of the cases but not in the other ?. The previously helped Ss tended to exert the greatest effort in behalf of their dependent peer. A self-report scale assessing social responsibility tendencies was significantly correlated with the effort measure in the Prior Help-High Dependency condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ego stage and identity status development: A cross-sequential analysis.

A longitudinal study of identity status and ego stage development during late adolescence was completed to assess (a) potential differential rates in male vs female development, (b) possible cohort differences, and (c) consistency in theoretically predicted change. The cross-sequential study included a Sex?×?Cohort?×?Repeated Measures design. A random sample of 148 freshman, sophomore, and junior college students was assessed in 1976 and 1977 using the Marcia Ego-Identity Incomplete Sentence Blank and Interview and the Loevinger Sentence Completion Test. Some sex and cohort differences were observed. Although half of the Ss remained stable in their identity ego status or stage, the remaining Ss experienced either advancement or regression from 1976 to 1977. The data support the theoretical notions of development underlying both psychological constructs and are consistent with previous longitudinal studies that indicate intraindividual change over time in personality development. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Creativity and terror management: Evidence that creative activity increases guilt and social projection following mortality salience.

The present research, based on the ideas of O. Rank (1932/1989) and E. Becker (1973), was designed to test the hypotheses that engaging in creative expression after personal mortality has been made salient will lead to both increased feelings of guilt and a desire to enhance social connectedness. In Study 1, the authors used a 2 (mortality salience vs control)?×?2 (creative pretask vs noncreative pretask) between Ss factorial design and measured self-report guilt. Results indicated that participants who were reminded of their death and completed the creative pretask expressed more guilt than all other participants. In Study 2 this effect was replicated with a modification of the creativity treatment. In Study 3, the same conditions leading to increased guilt also led mortality-salient creative-task participants to express higher levels of social projection, an index of perceived social connectedness. Implications of these results for creativity, the interpersonal nature of guilt, and terror management theory are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From referents to symbols: Visual cues and pointing effects on children's acquisition of linear function rules.

Each of 84 children in Grade 4 and combined Grades 5–6 first learned 2 linear function rules (a?×?F?=?S and F?+?b?=?S) under 1 of 7 conditions. These conditions resulted from variations in 2 factors: pointing (presence vs absence) and visual cues (context vs weight vs both pictured) plus a verbal-only baseline condition. Subsequently, Ss learned a complex rule (a?×?F?+?b?=?S) as a transfer task. Those trained with the visual cues abstracted a rule from rule instances and expressed it in symbols more easily than did the others. The visual cues caused positive transfer to the abstraction and the symbolic expression of the complex rule. The pointing activity had a short-term effect for the initial acquisition only, but it in itself retarded transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)